LI JJUBIiH 




I 



J^i</. /I 




Vattire 



OF THE ^^2 

ARTS ANB SCIENCES. 

BEING 

A COMPREHEKSIVE SYSTEM 

OF THE 

ELEMENTARY PAUTS 

OF AN 

USEFUL AXB FOLITE EDUC.ITIOX 

ADAPTED TO THE USE OF SCHOOLS IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 

IlilUSTRATED BY 

^^UMEROUS ENGRAVINGS OF SUBJECTS IN/^ATURAI. HIS> 
TORY....AND A VARIETY OJ STATI^CAL TABLES. 

THE SECOND EDITION. 



<< No one is obliged to learn and know eYcry thing, for ^ is 
utterly impossible : yet all persons are under some obligation to 
imnrove their own understanding. , j v i 

- Presume not too mucli on a bright genius, a ready wit, and 

^.od parts for these, without labor and study, will never make a 

S of knowlege and wisdom » Watts on the mind 



PHILAnELPIlM: 

PMNTED BY WILLIAM DUANE. 

1811. 






a- 



Uisirict of Pennsylvania, to wit : 

BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the twenty-seventh 
day of September, in the thirty -sixth year of the Independence of 
the United States of x\merica, A D. 1 81 1 , William Duanc of the said 
District, hath deposited in this office, the title of a book, the 
right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words following, to 
wit : 

•* An Epitome of the Arts and Sciences : being a compi*ehensive 
** system of the Elementary parts of an useful and polite Educa- 

** tion ; adapted to the use of schools in the United States 

'* Illustrated by numerous engravings of subjects in Natural 

" Histor}^, and a variety of Statistical Tables ....The second 

** edition. 

** No one is obliged to learn and know every thing, for it is utterly 

^* impossible.... yet all persons are under some obligation to improve 

** their own understandings. 

<* Presume not too much upon a bright genius, a ready wit, and 
*' good parts..,. for these, without labor and study, will never make 
'* a man of knowlege and wisdom." TVatts on the mind. 

In conformity to tlie Act of the Congress of the United State?, 
entitled, " An Act for the encouragement of learing, by securing 
the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and pro- 
pnetors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned" and 
also to the Act, er)tiilcd ** -An Act, supplementary to an Act, 
entitled " An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing 
the copies of Maps, Charts, and Bocks, to the authors and propri- 
etors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned," and 
extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, eugrawng, 
ttnd etehine historical and other prints " 

D. CALDWELL, 
Clerk of the district of Pennsylvania. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction pcigc ix 

CLASS I. 

Lesson I. Of the jirts and Sciences . . , . 1 
Lesson II. Of Natural Fhilosofihy . , , • 5 

Lesson III. Of the Creation , 9 

Cosmografihy — - 

Geology 10 

the Atmosfihere . • . . . ,12 
Meteorology 13 



CLASS n. 



Lesson I. 
Lesson II. 
Lesson III. 



Lesson IV. 
Lesson V. 
Lesson VI. 
Lesson VII. 



Of Logic .... 

Of Poetry - , • , 

Of Languages , . , 
Written Language 
the Greek Alphabet 
the Hebrew A Ifihabet 
Grammar ... 
Grammar continued 
Grammar continued 
Grammar continued 

Of Rhetoric and Oratory 

CLASS III. 



15 

ir 

21 

22 
26 
28 
SO 
36 
38 
40 
45 



Lesson I. 



Of Mathematics 
Arithmetic . 

Nhimeration . 



4S 



4?? 



IV CONTENTS. 

Lesson IT. Of Addition . . . i I . ^ . 5i 

Subtraction .55 

Lesson III. MultifiUcation 57 

Le^ssOn IV. Division 60 

Of Proportions^ coi^iSy weights^ 

a7id measures 61 

Lesson V. Of Proportions of time • ... 64 

Numerical letters — 

l->:sso^^ VL Of Geometry 67 

Mechanics .68 

Agricidture . . . . , . . 69 

Architecture 70 

Painting 71 

Scidpture 72 

Commerce . . • . ^ . . -t. 

CLASS IV. 

Lksson I. Of Chronology 75 

I^ESSON 11. Chronology continued * . . 81 

Lesson III. Of History 88 

Lesson IV. History continued • • . • 93 

CLASS V. 

Lesson L Of Geografihy 97 

Eur ofie,.,. Denmark^ Sweden^ 

Russia^ ^r 99 

Lesson II. Eur ofie,.,, Prussia^ Germany^ 

Austnoy Rhenish Confede^ 

racy 103 

Lesson III. Eurofi€.,,*Spain 107 

Portugal' ... — . 

Turkey .... 108 

Lesson IV. Eurofie..., France .... 109 

Switzerland^ Gene 
T/a, Helvetia^ Ba-^ 

tavia . . . . 1 1 r 



CONTENTS. 



Lesson V. Of Europe»>*,Great Britain^ Ire-^ 

land^ Italy 115 

Statistical table of Europe . 120 
Table of the European states 
deranged du ring th e Fren ch 
revolution^ or between 1791 

andl^W 121 

Table of states composing the 

Confederation of the Rhine 122 
Less on V L Of Asia .... Tartary^ Turkey^ Ara- 
bia . . 123 

Lesson VII. Asia,..,China^ Persia^ Hin' 

dustan^ i^c ISO 

CLASS VL 

Lesson I. Of Asia..,»Bombay^OrissayBaharj 
Bengal^ Benares.^ Allaha* 

bad^ Caboul^ ^c, ^c, . . \Sf 

Statistical tables of Asia . . 141 

Lesson II. Of Africa Egyflt^ Barbary^i^c. \44i 

Statistical table of Africa . . 149 

CLASS VIL 

Lesson I. Of America,, »* Spanish^ Portu^ 

gU€S£ .150 

North America . . . • . 154 
Lesson II. the United States . . .' . 155 
Lesson III. Georgia^TennesseC'^Kentucky^ 
South Carolina^ North Ca» 

rolina 157 

Lesson IV. Virginia^ Maryland^ Delaware 163 
Lesson V. Pennsylvania^ hi o^ Jersey , , 166 
Lesson VL Nero-York^Connecticut^Phods 

Island 170 

Le'Sson VIL Massachusetts^ New Hamp" 

shire^- Vermont , . . , 173 



vi coNirEisrrs* 

Lesson VIII. Territories and districts of the 
United States'—^ 
Maine^ Columbia^ Mississip-Ju^ 

Indiana^ Louisiana j Florida 177 

CLASS vm. 

Le s so n I . Of British colonies in JSTorthAme* 

nca^ as Canada^ ^^c, . . . 180 

Lesson II. West Indies 182 

Comfiarative geography , . 183 
Statistical tables of the United 

States 186 

Lesson fll. Of Gorv element 188 

Lesson IV. Of Jurisprudence . . . . '. 198 

Lesson V. Of Politics 201 

Lesson VI. Of Metaphysics^ Theology , • 207 

l^^^zo^ Y\\, Of Mythology 212 

Lesson VIIL Mythology continued . . . 215 

Lesson IX. Mythology continued . . . 220 

Lesson X. Mythology contiiiued . • . 223 

CLASS IX. 

Li^ssoN I. Of Natural Philosophy . . . 231 

Lesson II. Of Astronomy J' 234 

Lf'scn III. Astronomy continued . . . 238 
Table of the planetary pro- 
portions^ distances^ and pc 

riods 240 

Fixed stars 244 

Lesson IV. . Comets 247 

Eclipses . . . . . . . 249 

'.-^^•^ON V. Cf Air 250 

the Winds ....... 251 

the Mo7isooviS . ' . -. . . ^5'^ 



CONTEXTS. 



vu 



Lesson VL Tides .... T ... 254 

Cloudsj MislSj and Devf . . 255 

JRain 256 

Hail and Snow 257 

Thunder and Lightning . . 258 

Lesson VIL Earthquakes . . , . . . 259 

Volcanoes 260 

Lesson VIII. Water Spouts 263 

the Iris or Rainbow^ and Ha- 

ios ...*..., 265 

Lesson IX. Electricity 268 

Aurora Borealis 271 

CLA.SS X. 



Lesson I. 
Lesson II. 
Lesson III. 
Lesson IV. 

Lesson V. 



Of Geology .... 

Of Mineralogy . . . 
Mineralogy continued 
Mineralogy continued 
the Load Stone . . 

Of Chemistry , . . 



274 
278 
283 
28/ 
290 
292 



CLASS XI. 



Lesson I. 
Lesson II. 
Lesson III. 
Lesson IV. 



Of Botany 303 

Botany continued .... 308 

Of Animated Mature . . . .311 
Animated Nature continued 319 



FLJITES. 



Jupiter,, ..Apollo , . . . . . . ... 218 

jS^itune...,Pluto .......... 220 

Mars,„.Vulcan 221 

V€nus„,,Mercury 222 



TUl CONTENTS. 

BacchnS'^..Juno ^ • , 224 

Diana..., Minerva r....226 

The Ox..,.The Sheefi 314 

The Camel, ...The Dromedary 315 

The Deer.. n.The White Bear 316 

The Royal Tyger.^.The Condoiir . . . . . 317 

The Cock. ...The Heron 319 

The Flamingo. ...The Si4k Worm . . . , • 320 

Phalena Bite ejihala.... Meadow Butterjiy . . 322 
American Emfieror..,.The Stag Beetle and Gol^ 

den Beetle 32u 

Tarantula.»».Jckneumon Fiy ...... 324 



LYTRODVCTIO^*. 



THAT method of education is best adapted to 
iiiform the infant mind, which renders the knowkge 
of things most simple, clear, and distinct. As the 
greatest part of our early knowlege is derived through 
the eyes, it is of the greatest importance, that we pre- 
sent objects clearly to the sight ; and that the names 
which are assigned to things, be accompanied by an 
explanation of the nature and properties of the things 
described. 

The object which first attracts infancy, is the mo- 
ther ; to whom, instinct teaches it to look for suste- 
nance : the habit is very soon formed to the associa- 
tion of other domestic objects. The next objects are 
those of the infant's person, limbs, and members. 

As soon as the infant mind begins to discriminate 

between objects that present themselves to sight 

the emotions of pleasure and sucprize are succeeded 
by a desire of approaching and possessing them, or the 
curiosity of examining and understanding whatever 
affords delight. The same inquisitive passion, too 
often erroneously attributed to wantonness, which 
induces the child to take to pieces the painted toy, 
prompts its enquiry into the oiigin and cause, the 
structure and composition of natural objects. It is 
the instinct of the species, or reason acting before it is 
regulated by experience or instruction. This dispo- 
sition cannot be too carefully watched, nor too cau- 
tiously obstructed in its efforts to obtain kiiowlege. 

After acquaintance with domestic objects.. ..the first 
external objects which Qxcite. surprize and joy in the 
young mind, are the heavers. When darkness has 
restrained the vision, the serenity and silence of the 
night, the grandeur of the heavens, the expanded 



X 1NT»0DUCTI©N. 

azure, gemmed and studded with millions of transpa- 
rent points.. ..the moon rising, gentiy illumines the 
plains, over which a gloom had been cast.. ..the firma- 
ment smiles. ...and the fa^ e of nature losing its solemn 
aspect, inspires admiration and curiosity ...the light of 
day, and the gloom of night, are recollected cind com- 
pared.. ..the hills and forests present a contrast of light 
uniike the day, and of darkness not yet so indistinct 
as night, the shadows of the mountains, the illu- 
mination of their sides presented to the light, is per- 
ceived, the t ontrast is marked by its impression, and 
ihe idea is distinct, though it has not a name....irees 
and buildings are lengthened along the plains or the 
rivers... .and if the ocean be but in view, the imagina* 
tion is affected by the sublimity of the expanse... the 
cause of such wonders is sought.... the parent, friend or 
instructor, mforms his pupil... of the universe so vast> 
the order so perfect....joy and reverence, warm the 
youthful heart..., feelings the most grateful towards the 
great creator are inspired.... the infant who contem- 
plates, is taught to know that he or she form a part 
of this great work, and thence to value the blesshigs 
•with which they arc endowed.... in possessing the facuK 
ties to see, to examine, to admire, and to partake as the 
common gift of God to his creatures, of the bounties 
of this creation* 

This knowlege becomes a study useful and delight- 
ful. ...and gives to the mind, which has been so fortu- 
nate as to be directed that way, an elevation a 

consciousness of what is right, good, and virtuous, in 
riper years. 

In studying the universe* the young mind soon 
arrives at a point beyond which, without education, 
the powers of comprehension are obstructed. The 
wants of every hotir, prove that it is necessary to attend 
to the concerns of this earth, and to comprehend what 
is done, and doing upon it ; and these studies open 
new means of useful enquiry, with the pleasing reflec- 
tion, that in time, those objects which have excited 
the infant admiration, may become, when educatio'? 



INTROBITCTIOiy. XA 

shall have formed the mine for their compreherision, 
sources '» gi-ed-ter delig- t and utility. 

Mankind have discovered and invented various 
means, by which w^e may become acquai ted with the 
stupendous whole of the visible creatic .. These 
means of knowlege, are called arts and sciences... .a 
certain portion of which, is within i he power of every 
one to acquire, and which every one, who is not idle 
or vicious, will take pains to know. 

The knowlege of the universe, is called Cosmography^ 
a part of which is Astronomy^ or the study of the starry 
heavens. 

One of the most interesting and useful studies is 
Geography s which is the science that describes the 
surface of the earth and the waters. Geology^ whicli 
treats of the composition, structure, and the properties 
of the materials which compose this earth. Tofiogra- 
phy is the description of a part of the surface ot the 
earth. 

To the proper understanding of these branches of 
knowlegjj^ others are necessary ; and in the conduct 
of human life, various studies are required. Such as 
History., Natural History^ Natural Philosophy. 

History treats of the civil and social conduct of 
mankind... .it is composed of two branches.. ..C/^rowo- 
logy^ or what relates to the dates of events, and Par- 
ticular History^ which treats of the manner and effect 
of human transactions. 

Natural History is connected with Geography ; and 
treats >f the climate, soil, vegetable and mineral pro- 
ducticHis, waters, mountains, and animals of different 
countries. It comprehends Botany, Chemistry, and 
Animated Nature. 

Natural Philosophy is the study of nature, or of the 
principles and causes of its phenomena ; as the causes 
of the flux and reflux of the tides ; the principle of the 
magnet, of electricity, &c. 

The pursuit of knowlege is delightful, because we 
add daily to the stock ; and provide resources for 



Xil INTRODUCTION. 

rational pleasure through life. In a happy couutry 
like the United States, every youth has the right to 
aspire to the honors of public trust, and to serve 
his country : the individual who is best informed on 
all subjects, and most correct in his moral conduct, to 
which nothing conduces moie than knowlege, is the 
most respected and confided in. by his associates in 
youth, and his fellow citizens, when arrived at manhood. 

Nor are these branches of knowlege, matters of 
indifference to the female sex ; mental accomplish- 
ments are more durable than beauty ; and always 
preferable ; the young lady who is accomplished in 
mind, is the best calculated for friendship and for 
domestic love... .and she who possesses beauty, will 
improve it still more, by the graces of a cultivated 

understanding and lay up a treasure much more 

durable than exteraal beauty. The infant mind re- 
ceives its first impulses from the mother ; upon mo- 
thers, principally depend the future happiness and 
virtue of children, and of society at large ; it is, there- 
fore, of the first importance, that females should possess 
correct ideas of that knowlege which is requisite fox 
children of both sexes. To promote these ends, the 
present work is calculated. 

In all cases, instruction should inculcate a knowlege 
of facts ; the things taught should be understood, and 
notliing conduces so much to accuracy, as ihe illus- 
tration by visible objects, and the exercise of as many 
of the senses at the same time, as can be applied to 
any particular object. 

I'he author of this work, uses tliis means to recom- 
mend to the attention of all who are the friends of an 
effectual system of education, the principles of the 
method of Pe5?a/ozz2....as improved by Neef, and 
taught at his school near Philadelphia.. ..a method 
which, for its excellence, and the wonderful effects l 
which it produces in unfolding the infant mind, cannot 
be too much regarded by the parents of the rising 
generation. The present edition of this work, has 
derived not a little advantage from that system. 



kamts jlnd sc renews. 13 

It is this, even near the surface of the earth, 
where it is the heaviest : in the higher regions it 
is still lighter. For the air is composed of a 
high, middle, and lower region. 

The air of the higher region is more subtle 
and more cold than that of the middle ; and that 
of the middle is finer than the lower. 

The weight of a column of air, reaching from 
the surface of the earth to the top of the atmos- 
phere, is equal to that of a column of water, of 
the same diameter, 33 feet high ; for so high, 
and no higher will water rise in a pump, by the 
pressure of the external air, after the air within 
the pump has been extracted by the piston or 
sucker. Now the weight of a square column 
of water, one foot thick, and 33 feet high, is 
2160 pounds ; so that a man of a middling size, 
the surface of whose body is 14 square feet, 
sustains a pressure of air of 30240 pounds, 
when the air is of a moderate gravity ; a pres- 
sure that would be insupportable, and even fatal 
to him, were it not that it is equal on every part, 
and counterbalanced by the spring of the air 
within him, w^hich is diiFused through the whole 
body, and re-acts with an equal force against the 
outward pressure. Hence it is that a column of 
mercury in the barometer, from the same princi- 
ple, does not rise higher on a medium than 29 
inches and a half, its specific gravity to that of 
water being nearly as 14 to 1. 

OF METKOROLGGY. 

i^. What is a meteor ? 

A. A meteor generally is any matter engen- 
dered in the air which surrounds us, and which 
puts on the appearance of a fire or flame, so as 

B 



1^ AN EPITOME OF THE 

to become visible to our sight. It compre- 
hends numerous objects ; as clouds, aurora 
borealis, what is usually called Jailing stars^ 
and the rainbow is a meteor. 

^ How are they treated of ? 

A. Meteorology is reduced to a science, and 
into three classes or kinds : 1, igneous or fiery ; 
2^ aerial or volatile ; 3, aqueous or w^atery. 

^. What is generally supposed to be the cause 
of the common evening meteor ? 

A. Some recent publications assert that from 
a meteor of this kind, a matter has been caught 
having the properties of lime. 

^. It would then appear that a meteor is 
something collected in the air which is inflam- 
mable. 

A. Certainly : modern chemistry has shewn 
that even various kinds of air brought into contact 
take fire and explode. 

^. Are there not other meteors ? 

A. Luminous appearances are often seen in 
the heavens ; balls of fire of great apparent bulk 
have been seen passing rapidly across the hori- 
zon ; the aurora borealis, or northern light, is 
a very splendid meteor ; very heavy stones have 
descended from the atmosphere, the origin of 
which cannot be accounted for ; some have sup- 
posed these stones to have been cast off from 
some one of the planets or from some comet. 

^. Will you describe what relates to the rest 
of the universe, the planets, comets, and so 
forth ? 

A. In subsequent classes the most curious ob- 
jects of nature shall be described ; but it is ne- 
cessary first to enquire concerning matters that 
%vill enable us better to comprehend them. 



ARTS AND SCIEKCEii. 15 

AN EPITOME 

or THE 

ARTS ^JVD SCIENCES. 



CLASS II.. ..LESSON L 

OF LOGIC. 

j^ What is logic ? 

A. The art of using reason well in our enqui- 
ries after truth, and the communication of it to 
others. 

^ In what does this art consist ? 

A. It consists in the knowlege of facts, and 
the application of the reflections made by men 
through the four principal faculties of their mind, 
perception, reasoning, disposition, judgment. 

^. By whom is logic as an art, most employ- 
ed, and to whom most useful ? 

A. Whoever reasons well is a good logician ; 
but it is most employed, and with method, by 
those persons who have to teach or reason with 
others ; legislators, lawyers, preachers. It is 
useful to all men ; and all men who think and 
judge for themselves, employ logical rules v/ith* 
out being conscious of it : for the art is only the 
natural system of reasoning methodized and 
committed to writing. 

^. What is understood by perception ? 

A. It is the falculty of Comprehending in 
the mind, and discerning the nature of what 
we see or contemplate, and it may be sensible or 
abstract, we see a house^ a tree, a stream, and 



16 AHf EPITOME OF THE 

kT>ow what they are ; so we are conscious of the 
existence of our country, of our parents, or of our 
iiappy form of government, of time, motion, of 
trade, life, virtue, and various other subjects.... 
the result of the perception is an idea. 

Raasoni?ig^ or argumentation, is that opera- 
tion of the mind, by which we draw our conclu- 
• sions on any anv subject which is in itself not 
Clear, from a comparison with other similar sub- 
jects that are known and evident. These infer- 
ences or conchisions are the effect of reasoning-, 
and the propositions upon which they are 
founded we call a syllogism or argument ; as 
virtuous men are governed by their ideas of good 
and evil ;.. ..Thomas is a virtuous man, therefore 
he will not do what is evil. Or thus, 

No virtuous man is a slanderer, 

But Janus and Sil^nus are both slanderers.. 

The: efore neither of tkem are virtuous. 

There are various kinds of syllogism. 

Disposition or arrangement, is that order into 
wiiich we put our perceptions and reasonings on 
a subject, so as to obtain the clearest knowlege 
of it, to retain it longest in our minds, and com- 
municate it to others most effectually. 

Judgment is that act of the mind by which two 
or more conceptions or ideas are combined, 
either in asserting or denying something, the 
result of w^hich is called a proposition....as the 
rocks and trees do not think ; good men are 
often the victims of bad men ; virtuou? men are 
governed by their ideas of good and evil. 

This sketch of the system of logic is an exam- 
ple of disposition, as it arranges the principles 
by which we perceive, reason, and judge, upon 
all subjects* 



ARTS AiKD SCIENCES^ iJT 



CLASS ir....LESSON H. 

OF POETRY. 

^ What is poetry ? 

A, It is the art of writing or speaking accord- 
ing to a certain harmonious arrangement of 
words, by measures or proportions of time, ac- 
cent, and sound. 

^ Has not poetry other names ? 

A. It is also called verse^ from being con- 
structed in verses, thence the art is called versifi- 
cation ; and it is also called metre, because it 
consists of certain number or measure of sylla- 
bles or soundsa 

^. What is a poem? 

J. A complete and finished piece of poetty^, 
such as the Illiad of Homer, the Eneid of Vir- 
gil, and the Columbiad of Barlow : there arc 
lesser poems, and of various &pecies....in rhyme 
and blank verscc 

^ What is the difference between those twc 
kinds of poetry ? 

A. Rhyme is that kind of verse in which the ter- 
minating sounds are alike, or respond to each oth- 
er. Blank verse is measured by equal quantities 
of sound, but does not rhyme. The following 
are specimens of blank verse and of rhyme. 

Begin with gentle* toils y and as your nerves 
Grow firmer, to hardier by just steps aspire. 
The body, moulded by the clime, endures; 
The equator heats or Hyperborean frosts 
Except by habits foreign to its turn, 
Unwise, you counteract its forming power. 

ABMSXaOKG:, 



IS Air EPITOME OF TKS 

As new awaked from soundest sleep, 

Soft on the flow'ry herb I found me laid 

In balmy sweat, which with his beams the sun 

Soon dry'd) and on the reeking moisture fed. 

MILTON. 

Seek you to train your fav'nte boy ? 
Each caution, every care, employ : 
And ere you venture to confide, 
Let his preceptoi'^s heart be try'd ; 
Weigh well his manner^ life and scope. 
On these depend thy future hope. 

GAY* 

O 1. could I worship ought beneath the skies 
That earth hath seen, or fency could devise. 
Thine altar sacred liberty, should stand, 
Built by no vulgar mercenary hand, 
With fragrant turf, and flowers wi;d and fair 
As ever dress'd a bank, or scented summer air. 

COWPER. 

Ifaii man I exalted title I first and best, 

Of God*s own image by his hand imprest, 

O I man, my brother, how the cordial flame 

Of all endearments kindle at the name 1 

In every clime, thy visage greets my eyes, 

In every tongueth y kindred accents rise ; 

The thought expanding swells my breast with glee; 

It finds a friend, and loves itself in thee. 

BARLOV/. 

i^. Are there no other measures besides these ? 
A. There are those of ten, eight, and seven 

syllables, and various others* 

.^. Give me an example of each. 

jL That of ten, is the measure of thetwo pre- 
,. eding extracts from Cowper and Barlow ; as 
aie those from Armstrong and Milton in blank 
7crse ; and the following^ 



ARTS AN© SCIENCES. 1* 

Immodest words admit of no defence, 
For want of decency is want of sense. 

ROSCOMMOK. 

Verses of eight, which is an usual measure 
for short poems. 

And may at last my weary age 
Find out the peaceful hermitage, 
The hairy gown and mossy cell, 
Where I may sit, and nightly spell 
O'er ev'ry star the night does shew, 
And ev'ry herb that sips the dew. 

The extract above from Gay, is in the same 
measure* 

Verses of seven^ called Anacreontic, from 
Anaereon, a Greek poet, who wrote in verse of 
this measure; 

Fairest piece of well form^ earth. 
Urge not thus your haughty births 

^ In what principle does the perfection of 
poetry consist ? 

A» In the English language it principally de- 
pends on the modulation of the accents and the 
disposition of th^ pauses, and this modulation 
is various in different kinds of measure.. ..the 
following is an example of which the sense 
shews the character :. 

Softly sweet in Lydiau. measures, 
Soon he soothed his soul to pleasures y 
War, he sung, is toil and trouble, 

Never ending siill beginning, 
Fighting &till and still destroying ;. 

If the world be worth thy winning^ 
Think? O think it worth enjoyingo 



30 AN EPITOME OF TUB 

^ Which are the kinds of poetry most in use ? 

A. The kinds of poetry are various : the most 
considerable sorts are 1st, Pastoi'aly which des- 
cribes a shepherd's life, or that of rural nymphs 
and swains. 2d, Eleg-y^ is a mournful poem, or 
funeral song. 3d, Lyric Poetry^ is generally 
tised in the composition of songs and odes. 4th, 
Pindaric ode (so called from its inventor Pin- 
dar) is a species of poetry which consists of loose 
and free numbers, and unequal measures. 5th, 
Satires^ ^re free, jocose, witty, and sharp poems^ 
severely inveighing against vice and all corrupt 
manners and persons ; all measures are employ- 
ed in satirical verses. 6th, Comedy^ is an agreeable 
imitation of the actions, humors, and customs o£ 
common life. 7th, Tragedy^ in which the cala- 
mities of virtuous and illustrious persons are 
represented, to excite the sympathy of the. 
spectator, constancy, patriotism, and the social 
and heroic virtues. 8th, Epic or Heroic Poetry^ 
is a poetical narration of some illustrious and 
important actions of the hero celebrated in the 
poem ; as the great exploits of Achilles in the 
Iliad of Homer, 9th, Epigram^ is an inferior 
sort of poem, w^hose peculiar character is brevity, 
beauty,, and a sharp turn of wit at the end. 

As to the Acrostic, Rondeau, Charade, Echoy 
Rebus, &c. they are trifling pieces of art, adapt- 
ed to mirth and innocent amusements 



ARTS Al^B SCIENCES, 21 



CLASS IL...LESSON III. 

( F LANGUAGES. 

^ What is language ? 

A^ It is the speech or tongue of one nation, 
distinguished or differing from that of another.. •• 
Or it is the set of words made use of by a people 
to communicate their ideas to others ; the act 
of communication is called speaking, or the speech 
of the individual. 

^. Upon what principles is language formed ? 

jd. All languages in their beginning appear to 
have been produced from the first efforts of man 
to make known his wants and his affections to his 
fellow creatures. It must at first have been very- 
simple, and composed but of few words, parts or 
members. 

^. What is most necessary to the acquire- 
ment of a correct knowlege of language ? 

A. The only true and certain method is by- 
acquiring first a correct idea of natural objects, 
each individual thing separately ; and to consider 
the names as only signs of each particular ; after 
which an acquaintance with the rules of those 
languages in which the things are spoken of, 

^. Are there fixed rules by which a language 
is regulated ? 

A. Among rude and unlettered people it is 
withoutrules; but civilized nations have reduced 
their several languages to systems ; but generally 
there are too many rules that are useless. 

4(. Are more than one language necessary ? 

A. Not in the first instance; the language of 
your country is the most essential, and in it is to 
be found as much knowlege as in any other ; but 



22 AS EPITOME OF THE 

a correct knowlege of other languages is always, 
of great use. 

^. Whence has it arisen that there are vari- 
ous languages ? 

A. The same causes which gave rise to the 
number 'of nations produced this variety ; cli- 
mate and the natural productiveness or sterility of 
the soil, have had their influence on language, 
because neither the same objects were to be seen, 
nor the same wants, nor the same passions equally 
felt every where ; the inhabitants of the torrid 
zone never see snorv\^ ice, nor frosty they of course 
require no words to express these ideas ; the 
inhabitants of the frigid zone have no words to 
express the idea of an elephant, ?i pin^-apple, or 
a crocodile* Besides language was first only 
spoken, ages must have elapsed before arbitrary 
signs or letters came to be invented, and an ori-w 
ginal language written. 

^ How are the rules of language regulated ? 

A. By the system called grammar, from the 
Greek wordi granwiata, which means letters. 

OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 

^ What is Grammar ? 

A. It is the art of expressing intelligibly and 
roiTcctly our thoughts, by words written or 
spoken. 

.^. I5 grammar reduced to written rules ? 

A. Like other sciences, it has been divided 
into parts. 

^. Which are they ? 

A. There are four; 1. Etyntology, or the deri- 
vation of words, so as to shew their original sig- 
nification. 2, Orthography, the proper manner 
af using letters to signify words; 3. Syntax^ 



ARTS AND SCIENCI^S. 2S 

the right arrangement of words in speaking or 
writing ; 4, Prosody^ or the proper pronuncia- 
tion and accent of speech, 

^. Are there not other principles of grammar ? 

A* There are certain principles of grammar 
Avhich are called universal, and in which all na- 
tions and languages agree ; but the rules of 
grammar not only differ in different languages, 
but very perplexing differences exist among 
those who speak the same language, which con- 
tribute to render the knowlege of its true princi- 
ples uncertain and difficult to acquire. 

^. Whence have those differences arisen ? 

A^ From mistakes very natural to the human 
mind ; for example, language was formed only 
for the communication of thought, and has been 
considered singly in that view ; words, therefore, 
were taken to be no more than the signs of 
things, and thence that there must be as many 
words as things. While this notion prevailed, 
there were only two or three parts of speech. ••• 
first, noiins^ which denote things^ as food ; and 
verbs which denoted ideas oi actions or o{ wants ; 
to these were soon added what have been called 
particles by some, and connectives by others. 
This was in the infancy of grammar. 

^. What was the next stage ? 

A* Aristotle added a fourth part of speech 
this was called the definitive or article ; it was 
presumed that all words must belong to one or 
other of these four classes ; but it was soon 
found that some words would not enter into this 
association ; and this caused the first suggestion 
that the system of as many^ sorts of words as 
sorts of things must be abandoned* 

^. Wh^t was the effect ? 



2 if AX EPITOME or TfiB 

A. Making what was bad worse ; instead of 
taking signs or words as the representatives of 
things, they travelled backward, and made things 
the representatives of signs or words ; or in 
other terms, they said that there must be as many 
different things as there were signs. .•. and soon 
from four, the parts of speech were extended to 
20 and to 30 j those who acknowlegedthe fewest 
admitted 8 parts ; and this was long a favorite num - 
ber ; though some who rejected the article still 
counted 8 ; and those who admitted the interjec- 
tion still counted 8 ; but in what the difference con- 
sisted that entitled those words to be ranged in one 
or other of the eight classes, was never explained. 
^. Was there no light shed upon it ? 
A. Aristotle had held words to be the signs 
of ideas, and ideas the signs of things. ...but 
this had its opponents ; at length it was found 
that words were the signs or representatives 
both of ideas and of things ; and that there 
were words formed or abbreviated, which be- 
came the signs of other words, and that the use 
of dispatch in language which had been lost 
sight of, caused abbreviations. 

^. How were abbreviations introduced ? 
A* In three ways..., 1. Interms. 2. In sorts af 
words. 3. In construction. 

^. What is the best work on this subject ? 
A. Locke's third essay on the use and signifi- 
cation of language, is the best work existing on 
the first branch ; Tooke^ diversions of Pur ley ^ 
has shed still greater light; but the other 
branches are yet to be completely illustrated. 

^. Are there none of those universal rules 
allowed by good writers and speakers ? 

A. There is a tacit agreement in this princi- 
ple, that the whole of grammar may be reduced 



AUTS ANP SCIENCES. 25 

into two classes of words. 1. Those necessary 
for the communication of thoughts. 2. Abbre- 
viations. 

^. How is this classification applied ? 

A. The first class is subdivided into two parts, 

1. Noun....which is the sign of an idea, or 
ati impression on the mind. 

2. Verb...*the term signifying an action .or 
describing the impression^ 

^ But what of abbreviations ? 

A. This class is also subdivided : 
1. Abbreviation of terms. 
^ Abbreviation in the manner of significa- 
tion of words. 

Upon these two depend the excellence of 
language ; because if every idea were to have a 
particular name, all language would be but a 
collection of names ; but combined words ex- 
pressing an endless variety of ideas, lessen the 
number of names, or nouns, and render lan- 
guage more concise. All language, therefore, is 
principally composed of general terms ; and 
this is not the jefFect of ignorance or chance, hm 
of reason, skill, and necessity^ ^ 

^ Is there then no true system of grammar ? 

A. There are several systems.. ..and the prin- 
ciples are daily becoming better understood ; 
but the old order, somewhat improved, is still 
received and taught. 

^ What are the languages most esteemed by 
civilized nations ? 

A. The Greek and Latin among the deadt 
languages ; which are distinguished on account 
of the celebrity of the nations to which they 
belonged, and particularly valued, as all ancient 
learning of the first importance is to be found in 
those languages ; they are important in various 
c 



26 



AN EPITOME QF THE 



respects... .the Latin language owes as much to 
that of Greece, as the Roman reputation owes to 
the Grecian example : to the Greek we are 
forced to resort for terms of science ; and a 
great portion of our language is derived from 
the Latin, which is also the basis of the Spanish, 
Portuguese, French, and Italian. 

^ Are the Greek letters the same as the He- 
brew, or like those which we read ? 

A. Not exactly like either, though there is a 
remote resemblance of both. The Greek let- 
ters are as follow.. ..and their powers are ex- 
pressed by the Roman letters in the same lines.... 



The 7iame. 


JSium, 


Forms 




simls. 


Sound or Po-wer. 


Alpha 


1 


A 


et 




a 


Beta 


2 


B 


^ 


c 


b 


Gamma 


3 


r 


y 




c 


Delta 


4 


A 


I 




d 


Epsilon 


5 


E 


t 




e short 


Zeta 


6 


2 


K 


^ 


z 


Eta 


7 


H 


« 




e long 


Theta - 


.8 


© 


a 


e 


th 


Ipta 


9 


I 


i 




i 


''mppa ' 


10 


K 


K 




k 


Lambda 


20 


A 


A 




1 


Mu 


30 


M 


y- 




m 


Nu 


40 


N 


» 




n 


Xi 


50 


2 


1 




X 


Omicron 


60 


O 


6 




o short 


Ei 


70 


n 


T 


-zs- 


P 


Rho 


80 


^ 


i 


P 


r 


Sigma 


90 


X 


cr 


<: 


s 


TaU 


100 


T 


r 


7 


t 


. Jipsilon 


200 


Y 


V 




u 


Phi 


300 


4) 


<p 




ph or f 


Chi 


400 


X 


■K 




ch 


Psi 


500 


^ 


^ 




ps 


Omega 


600 


a 


a 




CO long 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 27 

^ What Is meant by the numbers of the se- 
cond row ? 

A. They each represent the number which 
the Greeks expressed by the several letters 
when used arithmetically. 

^. There were several dialects of the Greek? 

A. Yes, but the Doric was considered to be 
the most copious and ancient ; the Attic the most 
elegant ; the Spartan dialect was remarkable 
more for the conciseness of the manner of the 
speakers than for any difference in the language > 
from their style is derived the term laconic used 
to signify short speeches ;....as '' say some- 
thing better than nothing, or say nothing." 

^. What other languages are esteemed ? 

A. Beside the Greek, being the language of 
the new testament, the Hebrew is much re- 
garded as the language of the old.^ 

^ What is remarkable in the Hebrew ? 

A. 1. Its alphabet consists of £2 letters. 2. 
Each of these represent numbers. 3. That many 
words occur without any of the vowels, which 
may be pronounced as if a short e or a stood be- 
tween the consonants ; as nn*] DBR, pronounce 
Deber or Dabar ; Bpi VGiT)^ pequed or paquad. 
4. That most feminine nouns end in the n or n, 
most others are masculine. 5. That the plural 
masculine is formed by adding CD^ and the plural 
feminine by adding n? to the singular. 6. That 
the verbs have only two tenses^ past 2inA future^ 
and txvo gendt^rs^ masculine and feminine. 7. 
That Hebrew is read from the right hand to the 
left, and not from the left to the right, as the 
English and other western languages. 



%s 



AX EPITOME or THE 



The name. 


mim. 


foi^ 


Jinah,* 


simls. 


Sound or Po-wer, 


Aleph 


1 


^< 






a broad, as in war 


Beth 


o 


2 




3 


b 


Gimel 


3 


A 




J 


g hard, as in 


Daleth 


4 


T 




in 


d [give get 


He 


5 


n 




nn 


e as in where 


Vau 


6 


? 




^•n" 


u as oo, w before 


Zain 


7 


f 






•£ [a vowel 


Heth 


a 


n 




n 


h hard asfiirate 


Teth 


9 


t3 




DtS 


th 


Yod 


10 


•» 






i //A-^ ee 


Caph 


20 


D 






k or c hard, as 


I^med 


30 


^ 


T 500 




I [come 


Mem 


40 


D 






m 


Nun 


50 


:i 


a 600 




n 


Samech 


60 


D 


I7C0 


a 


sh 


Oiii 


70 


r 




-^v 


o /o^z^*, as whole 


Pe 


80 


D 






P 


Tsaddi' 


90 


:^ 


T 800 




j «o/?5 as s m trea- 


Koph or \ 
Quoph 3 


100 


P 


1^ 900 




[sure 
q or qu 


Resh 


200 


1 






r 


Shin or Sin 


300 


ly 






s 


Tau 


400 


n 






t 



— % What are the languages of Asia ? 

A. They are as numerous almost as the na- 
tions that inhabit it....the Sanscrit, Arabic, Per- 
sian, Telinghee, Bengalee^ Malabar, Malay, and 
Chinese are most celebrated. 

^ What is remarkable of the Sanscrit ? 

A. 1. It is not permitted to be spoken but by 
the priests. 2. In that language all the myste- 
ries of -their religion and laws are contained. 3. 
It is regular, copious, harmonious, and not diffi- 



* The lett,ers ai-e thus wiitten at the ends of words. 



AKT3 AND S^eiENCES, 29 

cult to learn. 4. Its construction agrees best 
with the Latin language, by which it may be 
verbally translated without deranging the order 
of the words of either language. 

^ What of the Arabic ? 

A. It is remarkable for its copiousness and 
precision, and the regularity of its construction* 
Some learned men say it is derived from the 
Sanscrit. 

^. What of the Persian ? 

A. It bears the same distinction in Asia that 
the French obtains in Europe ; it is the language 
of taste, and of the learned i it is soft, adapted 
to poetry, copious and beautifully regular in its 
construction, and may he acquired like the 
French for the common uses of life in a very 
short time. 

^ What of the Chinese ? 

A. It is a very rude and unscientific language. 
It partakes rather of the hieroglyphical than the 
alphabetical character.. It requires a long por- 
tion of human life to understand any of its 
dialects, of which there are many.. The Teling- 
hee is the language of the Hindus, the Bengalee 
of the province of Bengal, which is written from 
left to right, unlike the other Asiatic languages ; 
the Malay is a copious, rich language, it is 
spoken beside in Malacca, on the greater number: 
of the islands of the oriental archipelago. 

^. Of the modern languages which are the 
most useful ? 

A^ The French has been cultivated for more 
than a century, and is now the most prevalent 
language of Europe ; the German is much- 
esteemed; the Italian is more a language of 
taste than of use ; the Spanish is becoming very 
useful on account of the independence of Souttu 
America. 



SQ" AHi EPITOME OE THEr 



CLASS n • . . . LESSON UI. 

OF GRAMMAR. 

^. How many parts or classes of words are 
received in modern grammar ? 

J*. Ten, which are called parts of speech ; 
1, Article ; 2, Noun ; 3, Verb ; 4, Adjective ; 
5, Pronoun ; 6, Adverb ; 7, Participle ; 8, Con- 
junction ; 9, Preposition ; 10, Interjection. 

^ Will you describe them ? 

A. The article is derived from the Latin ar" 
ticuliis a joint. There are three of them in our 
Ianguage,..*they are a^ aii^ and the ; which are 
placed before nouns to fix their particular or 
general signification, as a man, meaning some 
man ; the man, meaning a particular man ; an 
elephant, means some elephant ; the article a 
itlways precedes a consonant, an precedes words 
beginning with a vowel and the letter A. 

2. A noun from nomen^ a name, signifies a 
nl^ce, person, or thing, as Boston, Franklin, 
Wisdom, America, Women, Virtue. 

Nouns are divided into proper and common...., 
proper, are those which belong to one place, per- 
son, or thing only, as Philadelphia, Rittenhouse^ 
Schuylkill; these proper nouns require no arti- 
cle before them ; coaimon nouns do, as book, 
man, river ; proper nouns make sense alone, as 
Europe, war, misery; Pennsylvania, freedom, 
peace, happiness. 

CASKS OF NOUNS. 

Nouns have two cases. 

The nominative case names and goes before. 
the verb ; answering to the question.... Who ? os- ^ 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. SI 

What ? as JVho loves truth ? Benjamin loves 
truth ? What is most commendable ? Vir- 
tue, 

The genitive, which denotes possession, and 
ought to be called the possessive case, answers 
the question whose ? the sign is qf^ and is 
sometimes formed by adding an apostrophe with 
an s, as 

This is my brother's book — ^instead of my brother his bookj^ 
or the book of my brother. 

When a noun ends in j/, the plural is som€^ 
times changed to ie5....as, is the ladj/ gone ? 
Are the Isidies gone ? We were exposed to some 
inconveniency....we were exposed to many in- 
conveniencz>5. 

An apostrophe distinguishes the genitive sin- 
gular, from the nominative plural, as this is my 
sister's nosegay. 

When the nominative plural ends in s, the 
genitive plural is formed by addiag the apos- 
trophe after the s, as these are my two sisters' 
books. 

3. A verb, is a word signifying action, to be, to 
do,^ or to suffer ; any word is a verb to which a 
]pronoun being prefixed, sense is expressed.. •• 

KXAMPLESo 

Pronoun, Verb. 

I write, 

YoiL read. 

He talks. 

Ye sing. 



9* 



AN 3&PryOME OF THE 



Article. 



Verb. 



Adjective, 



a 


man 


is 


thoughtfuL 


the 


\^omen 


are 


beautiful. 


ti.e 


clildren 


look 


healthy. 


an 


horse 


is 


useful. 


an 


elephant 


appears 


large. 



4. An adjective, sighafies something adjoined 
or characteristic of the quality of a thing, place, or 
person ; as, the river is clear ; the man is tvise ; 
th^ city is beautiful i or, a xvise man, a clear ri- 
ver, a ^e^az/i'zyi^/ city.. ..adjectives have no sense 
alone, as a wi^*^, 2. clear ^ ^ beautiful^ would ex- 
press no perfect idea. 

Examples of Articles, Nouns, and Adjeor 
tives : 



Article* 



Adjective, 



JVoun, 



a 


plentiful 


harvest. 


a 


free 


people. 


an 


independent 


republic. 


an 


happy 


country. 


the 


good 


man. 


the 


wise 


magistrate 



Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, 
the positive, comparative, and superlative. ...as 

P08, A wise magistrate ; A good man. 

Coinfi, A wiser magistrate ; A better man. 
Sup, The wisest magistrate ; The best man. 

5. A pronoun, a word used instead of a noun, 
to avoid the frequent repetition of names, and 
to abbreviate speaking and writing* 

Speaking of myself, it is shorter to say /did 
so, than William did so. I do not say Richard 



ARTS AND SCIEXCESa^ Si 

rose, but he rose ;^ I do not say I love Elizabeth 
and I teach Elizabeth, but I love and teach her» 
Here /, he and her, are pronouns. This part of 
speech has, beside a singular and plural, three 
distinct species ; that is the personal, relativey 
and demonstrative, very necessary to be under- 
stood. 

Relative pronouns are those that relate to a 
noun which has preceded or is to follow, they 
are, who, which, what, whether* 

Demonstrative pronouns 2iYc*.:this, that, other^ 
and same* 

This in the singular makes these in the plural. 
That in the singular makes those in the plural. 

Whichis2iho apronoun, when things are spok- 
en of, and who and whom when person is refer- 
red to, as 

Franklin was the man ivho brought lightning from 
the heavens. 

Jefferson is the man whom the people have ho- 
nored. 

The 4th of July, 1776, is the day from which We 
date our independence as a nation. 

GENDERS OF PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns have three genders in our language. 

The masculine, or he-kind.. ..designated by he 
or him* 

The feminine, or she-kind....designated by 
she or her. 

The neuter, which signify inanimate things, 
and are designated by the pronoun it* 

Pronouns have two numbers, singular and 
plural : the singular speaks only of one person 
or thing ; the plural speaks of more than one 



34 AN EPITOME OF THE 

person or thing. Each number has also three 
persons. 

SINGULAR NUMBER. 

The first person speaks of myself, J, me. 

The second is spoken to, thou^ thee. 

The third is spoken of he^ him^ she. 

her^ it. 

PLURAL NUMBER. 

First person, speaking oiourselvesy ive^ us. 
Second, to others, yey you. 

Third, of others, they^ them. 

The plural is also formed by adding an s to 
the singular.. ..as a dollar, two dollar^....an eagle, 
two eagles.. ..cent, cents. 

CASES OP PRONOUNS. 

A pronoun has two cases....the nominative 
going before the verb, is called the agent, 
and answers to the question -who P as who 
teaches Elizabeth ? / teach her. The accusative 
following, is called the object, and answers to 
xvhom ? as whom do you say I teach ? You 
answer, you teach me. 

The accusative in this case, is also th^ objec- 
tive case, because it is the object of the verb. 

Examples of the cases of pronouns : 

KOMINATIVEl. 

I-, thou, he, she, we, ye, they, who, whoever. 

ACCUSATIVE. 

Me, thee, him, her, us, you, thou, whom, whomso-^ 
ever. 

/teach him. She learns of me. 

He loves them. They love V8, 



ABTS AND SCIEXCESr 



35 



PERSONS OF PRONOUNS. 





KOMINATIVE. 




lingular. 




Plural 


1. I, 




we, 


2. thou, 




ye, 


3. he, she, it 


ACCUSATIVE, 


they. 


1. me, 




ye, 


2, thee, 




you, 


3. him, or her. 


them. 




VERB. 




Nominative. 


Singular, 


Accusative^ 


1. I 


revere 


thee. 


2. thou 


regardest 


me* 


3. he 


respects 


her. 


4. she 


esteems 
Plural. 


him. 


1. We 


admire 


them. 


2. ye 


love 


us. 


3. they 


adore 


you. 



There is another class of pronouns called 
possessives^ or pronouns in the genetive case... 
they are, 

My, mine, our, ours ; 
They, thine, your, yours ; 
His, her, hers, it, its, their, theirs ; 
Whose, one's, other's, another's. 



The following have 
Singular. 
this, ... 
that, - - . 
mysilf, oneself, 
himself, herself, itself, 
thyself, yourself, 



Plural. 
these, 

- those, 
ourselves, 

- themselves^ 
yourselves. 



S6 



AX EPITOME OF THE 



CLASS IL.,UESSON IV. 



ADVERB. 

6. An adverb, is a part of speech joined to a 
verb, to express its quality or circumstances ; 
as adjectives are joined to nouns. 

Adverbs may be joined also to adjectives, to 
participles, and to other.adverbs. 

EXAMPLE* 

^erd. adverb, 

IHartman reads well. 

adverb. adjective. 

He is a truly good boy. 

adverb. par tici file. 

Janus is secretly plotting. 

adverb. adverb. 
He feels very foolishly. 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may be 
reduced to certain classes, as follow ; 

1. Of J\rumber,.„2^s once, twice, thrice, Sec. 

2. Ore^er.... first, secondly, thirdly, lastly, and 
finally, &c. 

jP/ac^....here, there, where, elsewhere, any- 
where, every where, whither, hither, thither, 
upward, downward, backward, forward, thence, 
hence, &c. &c. 
7i*me....( present) now, to-day. 

(past) already, before, lately, hereto- 
fore, yesterday, hitherto, long since, long 
ago. 

(future) to-morrow, not yet, hereaf- 
ter^ by and bye, instantly, presently, immedi- 
ately, strait way. Sec. 

(indefinitive) oft, often, soon, some- 
times, seldom, lately, always, when, then^ 
never, ever, again, S^c. 



3. 



4. 



b 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
11 



Quantity, ...mnch^ little, enough, &c. 

Manner^ quail oy^„. wisely^ foolishly , justly^ 
badly, ably, cheerfuily, admirably. 

Dow^iW... perhaps, possibly, peradventure. 

Affirmation, ^.ytrily, truly, yea, yes, surely, 
certainly, really, indeed. 

JS/egation. ,,,Y\diy, no, not, by no means. 

Interrogation., „how, why, wherefore. 

Comfiarison,^,.niOYc, most, good, better, best, 
bad, worse, worst, less, least, almost, little, kc. 



I 



PARTICIPLE. 

7. A participle is a certain form of the verb, 
participating af the properties of the adjective 
.•..of which there are three kinds. 1. The 
present, or active ; 2, the perfect or passive ; 3, 
the compound perfect. 

EXAMPLES. 

Active participle, - - loving 

Perfect, - . . . loved 

Compound or preterperfect, having loved 

The first signifies action, either going on, or 
imperfectly begun and not ended....as / am 
xvriting. 

The second or perfect, implies that the thing 
is done or finished.... as it is written* 

The third*...I had written. 

There are two participles which pertain to 
most verbs : the first is called the active, which 
always ends in ing: the second, the active pas- 
^ive^ which generally ends with ed: thus, calh*72^, 
and cdlled, point out the distinction ; the parti- 
ciples are, however^ more various in their 
terminations and forms. 



38 AJf EPITOME OF THE 

CLASS n....LESSON V. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

8. Conjunctions^ or connectives, join words or 
sentences together. 

In some cases, adverbs, participles, and pro- 
nouns, assume the character of conjunctions. 

Uniform conjunctions^ are as follow : 

and nor else because albeit therefore 
but the* either altho* however thereupon 
of yet neither unless namely whatever 

whereas 

Adverbs which are sometimes conjunctions, 
also then otherwise 

as twice likewise 

Verbs that are sometimes conjunctions, 
except save 

Preposition sometimes a conjunction.... for 
Pronoun that 

A conjunction has no separate meaning ; like 
an adjective, it requires another word to make 
sense ; and £ind hut^ for example, have no mean- 
ing; but when thus used, are of importance.... 
that man g/2^ horse. ...not the man but the horse. 

In the following sentence, the use of conjunc- 
tions is seen : 

Truth and probity, unless misrepresented, 
command love and respect ; because these qua- 
lities are the basis of morality and virtue, for 
(or s'lnce^ or becmise^^ without them neither confi- 
dence ?ior mutual respect could exist in society. 



AKTS AND SCIENCES. 



35 



before 


for 


out 


along 


behind 


from 


to 


outside 


below 


in 


than 


with 


beneath 


into 


under 


inside 


between 


of 


over 


within 


beyond 


off 


unto 


without 


by 


on 


towards 


upon 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 

9. Prepositions are words placed before 7iouns 
and pronouns^ to shew the relation of persons, 
places, or things, to each other ; but like adjec- 
tives and adverbs, have no single signification* 

The prepositions are, 

about 

above 

after 

against 

amidst 

among 

amongst 

at 

To understand the use of the preposition -, 
omit it in the following sentences, and after- 
wards insert it where the dot stands between. 

My father is gone . Boston 
My brother is . the country. 
My sister was . Trenton. 

Here it is only necessary to ^d the prepasi- 
tions....fc>....?;z.,.,and at^ to make sense of the 
sentences. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

10. An interjection is a word which has no 
necessary connexion with, or dependence on any 
other.., .it may be singly expressed, or precede 
sentences explanatory of the emotion of joy, 
applause, sorrow, pain, contempt, or sympathy, 
which excited it : it is a simple exclamation, of 
which the following are examples ; 

Hazza ! bravo ! ah I O ! 

Oh I psha I alas ! 



«o 



AJr UPETOME 01^ THE 



CLASS II...XESSON YI. 



OF PARSING, 

Parsing is that part of instruction, which by 
practice, exercises the skill of the pupil in the 
parts of speech ; and by which the parts of speech 
are discriminated in the structure of language^ 
according to the received rules of grammar. 

EXAMPLE. 

The little birds sing praises to God, whea 
they warble sweetly in the green shades of the 
wilderness. 



The 

little - 

bird-i 

sing 

pj'aises 

to 

God 

when - 

they 

wai'ble - 

sweetly 

in 

Ihe 

green - 

shades 

of 

the 

wilderness 



an article 

adjective 

noun 

verb 

noun 

lirefiQsition 

noun 

adverb 

pronoun 
- ^ verb 

ad-verb 

firefiositioji 

article 

adjective 

noun 

prefiontion 

article 

noun 



MODES OR MOCWDS. 

The modes or moods are four ; that is, there 
are four manners or ways, in which verbs express 
their meaning. 



ARTS ANP SCIENCES. 41 

1. The indicative^ which a^ks or declares a 
question ; as I a?n well -, is Sidney sick ; are 
you going ? 

2. The itnpereLtivey commands or forbids ; as 
learn your lesson ; go up stairs ; stop a while. 

3. The subjunctive^ is so called, because it 
has often a conjunction subjoined ; as z]/ 1 stay. 

4. The injinitivey which has neither number, 
person, nor nominative case ^before it, and is 
known by the sign to : as I mean to ride ; you 
wish to walk. 

THE TENSES. 

There are six tenses^ or distinctions of time^ 
in which all actions have been^ are^ or may be 
performed y and verbs denote action y these 
are past time, present, and future, and the divi- 
sions which are made of the past and future. 

The past is divided into three. 

1. The preterimperfect^ or what had not 
been fully done at a past time ; known by was ; 
or did; or I wrote^ did write, or xtras writing. 

2. The preterperfect or what had been fully 
done at a time past j known by have ; as I have 
been, or have written. 

3. The preterpluperfect denotes time more 
than past, or where the date is not certainly fixed 
or expressed, and is known* by had; as I had 
written, I had gome remote knowlege ; I once 
had an excellent horse. 

The present tense has no variety, as it denotes 
the time that now is : the signs are do^ and arriy. 
andi^; as I ^ write; I am writings he is 
writing. 

The future has two divisions. 

1. Future imperfect^ or time to come, knowJi 
by shall or will. 



4^ Jln epitome oe the 

2. Future perfect^ positive, as it shall or wilt 
have been ; or with the conditional or provi- 
sional when it shall or will have been. 

^ Is the study of grammar necessary ? 

A. Most certainly it is ; because ignorant of 
title principles of grammar, we should be stran- 
gers to the correctness of the language of our 
own country, and unable to express ourselves 
on the most trifling occasions properly or cor- 
rectly^ What, for instance, is more common, 
than to hear ignorant people say, / loves^ I 
knows^I sees^ instead of I love, I know, I see ; 
/ seen^ instead of / saxu^ or had seen ; and had 
have^ instead of have had ; and committing a 
thousand other errors against grammar. 

^. Is not th« study of grammar difficult ? 

A. In Grefek and Latin it is difficult, because 
these languages are not spoken in common ; but 
in the French and some other modern languages 
it is easy. English is very easy to us who 
speak it in common y but to foreigners very dif- 
ficult. 

^. What is punctuation ? 

A. Punctuation is the art of making in writ- 
ing the several pauses or rests between sentences, 
and the part of sentences, according to the proper 
q^uantity, or the sense of the subject. 

>^. What marks are used for this purpose I 

A* The comma ^ 

The semicolon § 

The colon ^ 

The period r* S- '^ 



The interrogation 
The exclamation 
The pai'enthesis 






LQ 



ARTS AND SCIEXCES, 4*^ 

^. How are these points or stops used ? 

A. Each of the first four, have a power or 
value proportionate to their position ; as the 
comma is the smallest or shortest pause ; or^ 
that which marks the sense, in places where 
delicacy of judgment is required, to render the 
intention of the writer perfectly understood. A 
comma before and after a word, in many instan- 
ces totally alters the sense, as in the following 
verses : 

FALSE PUNCTUATION. 

Now Phaeton by lofty hopes, possess'd 
The burning seat, with ioyful v7gor. press'd 
With nimble hands the heavy rein?^ he weigh'd 
And thanks unpleasing to his father paid. 

TRUE PUNCTUATION. 

Now Phseton, by lofty hopes possess'd, 
The burning seat with joyful vigor press'd ; 
With nimble hands the hea\y reins he weigh'd. 
And thanks unpleasing to his father paid. 

Ovid. 

The semicolon divides sentences, as the com- 
Bia divides words and regulates s^nse ; and the 
col(5n divides sentences which are more remotely 
connected. The following is an example af a 
semicolon in an expression of Franklin. 

It seems to be intended that we should see and 
hear twice as much as we speak ; for we have two 
eyes and two ears^ and but one mouth,. 

The colon is somewhat longer than a semico- 
lon and shorter than a period ; and in some 
instances where the colon occurs, the sense is 
perfect without what follows it, and it is then^ 
only an additional idea or sentence. 

In adversity, education is a source of comfort ; in 
youth an amusement ; a delight in old age : at home 
it is agreeable ; abroad a charming companion : the 
fruits of a good education are alwaj;s in bloom*^ 



iA AX EMTOME OP THE. 

The period or full point, is used also to divide 
the members of subjects and sentences ; and to 
point out where a pause may take place, or a 
sentence ends. 

The apostrophe is seen as used in poetry in 
the above verses, where it stands in the place of 
the e. Its further use is described in the 3d 
lesson, page 31, in explaining the genetive or 
possessive case. 

The interrogation is placed after questions. 

The exclamation, or note of admiration, is 
placed after words or sentences which express 
surprize or admiration; and when used in sati^ 
rical or humorous exclamations, two or more of 
them are often used. 

Parenthesis are used for the introduction of 
small sentences into the middle of larger.. 

A moral life is the happiest ; there is no reli- 
gion (how^ever often you go to church) without 
a moral conduct ; moral conduct is practical reli- 
gion ; religion without morals (it is too frequent) 
is only imposture or hypocrisy. 

There are various other signs used in writing 
and printing, among which are the following : 

The apostrophe ' is. used as a means of abbre- 
viation, as tho' for though; received for re- 
ceived, Katherine's book. 

^ This sign is called paragraph, and is prin?- 
cipally used in the scriptures to designate the 
commencement of a new subject. 

§ This is called a section^ and is used in va- 
rious works for the divasian of subjects. 

^ :j: t [| ^^"^ are used as references to notes 
frequently placed at the bottom of a page, which 
explain or illustrate a point, or refer to an autho- 
rity for what is asserted^. 



i^ 



ARTS AND SCIENCES* 45 



CLASS IL...LESSON VH. 

OF RHETORIC AND ORArORY, 

^ What is rhetoric ? 

A. The art of expressing ourselves well, and 
ornamentally, on any subject ; to please, to 
touch the passions, and to persuade, whether in 
speaking or writing, A speech made according 
to the rules of this art, is called an orationy and 
the speaker an orator^ or an eloquent man, 

^. What are the qualifications of a good ora- 
tori 

A. He should have the following requisites : 

I. A knowlege of the subject, names, and pro- 
perties of the matters to be spoken of. 

II. Memory ^\sf\C\c}i\ is the pawer of tha mind 
to retain the things he has learnt. 

III. Invention^hY which he finds out such rea* 
sons and arguments as are adapted to persuade 
or gain belief. 

IV. Pronunciation^ which relates to the de- 
livery of a discourse or oration in a distinct and 
agreeable manner ; with a pleasing modulation 
of voice, and becoming gesture of the body. 

V. Disposition or order ^ that he may know 
how to dispose or arrange his arguments in a 
proper order or method. 

VI. Elocution^ which is a clear and distinct 
manner of expression, harmonious to the ear; 
so full and deliberate as to be clearly heard and 
understood. 

VII. A knowlege of logic, or a logical mind. 
^. What else is necessary to the completion 

of rhetoric or eloquence ? 

A. Simplicity of style is ever the most im- 
pressive j but as there are various modes of 



46 AN EPITOMB OF THE 

eloquence, so in some a figurative language is 
allowed ; and indeed more of our general dis- 
course is of the figurative kind^ than may at first 
sight be supposed. 

^. Are figures of only one kind ? 

J. No; they are divided into two classes.*,^. 
tropes ^nd Jrgtires. 

^ What are tropes and figures ? 

A. A trope is an elegant and beautiful turn- 
ing of a word from its proper signification to 
another. As charity is co/d... .You read Virgily 
!• e. the writings of Virgil... .The clouds drop , 
J^dtness^ Sec. 

^ What are figures ? 

A. Some of them regard the meay^ing' of 
words ; as, if we ride^ let's ride, i. e. go forward ; 
somc*depend on the sound^ as he is not a friend^ 
but a fiend; some refer to the order ^ as, meats are 
for the belly, not the belly for the meats ; some 
relate to the subject of actions as they change 
their soil^ not their minds^ who plough the main. 

When an Indian of our woods speaks, he 
resorts to figures.... as, " We have planted the 
tree of peace"...." I have buried the tomohawk, 
let us brighten the chain of friendship." 

^. Are there not various kinds of figures ? 

A. The principal figures are personification, 
apostrophe, comparison, metaphor, allegory; and 
these have their sepr^rate classes. 

Personification is the boldest of figures, as it* 
bestows life and motion on inanimate things. .,. 

Now summer with her wanton court is gone 
To revel on the south side of the worlds 
While winter rising pale from northern seas, 
Shakes from his hoary locks the drizzling rheum. 

Armstrong. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 47 

Let none with heedless tongue from truth disjoin 
The reign of virtue. Akenside. 

Here summer, and winter, and virtue, are 
personified. 

Look the morn in russet mantle clad, 
Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. 

Shakspeare. 

Apostrophe very much resembles the preced- 
ing figure, as it consists in bestowing ideal pre- 
sence on persons dead or absent.. ..example, 

Weep on the rocks of roaring winds O maid of 
Innistore, bend thy fair head o'er the waves, thou 
fairer than the ghost of the hills when it moves in 
a sunbeam over the silence of Morven ! He is 
fallen ! Thy youth is low ; pale beneath the sword 
©f Cuchcullin. Ossian. 

The dead are also invoked in the apostrophe. 

Hyperbole is a dimini' hing or magnifying of 
an object contrary to reality or strict truth.... 
example. 

" He was owner of a bit of ground not larger 
than a Lacedemonian letter." 

This is a ludicrous hyperbole. 

Comparison is a familiar figure.. ..example. 

The music of Carryl was like the memory of 
jo s that are past, pleasant and mournful to the 

tM3Ul. OSSIAN. 

Some think the spirit is apt io feed on the flesh 
like hungry wines upon raw beef. Swift. 

CoUins's ode entitled the passions, is throyigh- 

out, a beautiful personification of the seversd 

passions* 



48 AN BMTOME OF THB 

AN EPITOME 

OF THE 

J.RTS ^i;prD^SCIEJ^CES. 



CLASS in....LESSON I. 

OF MATHEMATICS. 

^. What is meant by mathematics ? 

A. The science ofnumbers, or quantity, mag; 
nitudes, and extension ; or whatever is capable 
of being numbered or measured- 

^ What is the use of mathematics ? 

A, Upon this science the most sublime and 
interesting of all others depend... .astronomy, 
geography, and even the ordinary transactions of 
business ; beside that the study opens and ex- 
tends our mental faculties, strengthens and 
corrects our judgment, and by giving us just 
ideas of proportions and distances, enables us to 
reason accurately. 

^ What concern has it with our ordinary 
business ? 

A. Arithmetic, which is only a branch of 
mathematics, renders us great service. 

OF ARITHMETIC. 

i^. What is arithmetic ? 

A. The art of numbering, or calculating truly 
by simple numbers, with ease and expedition. 

^. Describe arithmetic ? 

A. It consists of certain rules or modes of 
employing numbers in calculation ; they are 
iiddition, subtraction, multiplication, division ^ 



ARTS AND SCIEKGES. 49 

tipon these four rules all mathematical calcula- 
tions are founded. 

The operation of arithmetic is performed with 
certain signs or characters which represent num- 
bers, borrowed from the nations of Asia, and 
answer in number to the fingers on the hands...* 
whence they have been called digits. 

They are of the greatest antiquity in the Hin- 
du writings ; they were introduced into Europe 
by the Arabians or Moors, and brought into 
use by Pope Sylvester the Second, in place of 
the old tedious and confused Roman mode of 
<:omputation by alphabetical letters ; they are 
as follow ; 

One - « * - - 4 
Two - . . - 2 

Three 3 

Feur - . - - . 4 
Five . - • - 5 

Six - * - - - 6 

Seven - * - - - 7 
Eight - - - • -8 
Nine ... - . 9 
■Cypher - • . - o 

The first nine of these are called significant 
figures, to distinguish them from the cypher, 
which has no value alone ; but being placed on 
the right side of a whole number encreases its 
value ; as 1 is only a single number ; and 2 
double the number one ; by placing a cypher 
on the right of one^ it becomes ten ; thus 10, 
means ten times one. So placing the cypher on 
the right of 2, thus 20, it becomes two times 
ten, or twenty times one. Again, if any of 
those figures, say, 3, 4, or 5, stand alone, they 
mean no more than three, four, five times one i 



50 AN EPITtME Olf THlfi 

add one cypher to them and they become ten times 
as many, thus 30 thirty, 40 forty, 50fifty«...so add 
two cyphers and they become three times ten, 
four times ten ; as 300 three hundred, 400 four 
hundred, &c. and the same power encreases in 
ten fold proportion with every figure whether 
significant or cyphers ; as will be seen in the 
following tables. 

1 Units 1 

12 Tens 10 

123 Hundreds 100 

1234 Thousands 1000 

12345 Tens of Thousands 10000 

123456 Hundreds of Thousands 100000 

1234567 Millions 1000000 

12345678 Tens of Millions 10000000 

123456789 Hundreds of Millions 100000000 

To read figures with facility, the words ex- 
pressing the numbers should be first got by 
heart.. ..as units, tens, &g. 

The figure farthest at the right hand expresses 
that number of units, and the second from the 
right hand tens, and the third hundreds, and 
so on. 

So begin at the first table, the first number 
being only one, you can proceed no farther. 

The second number is 12, that is beginning at 
the right....2 units, and one ten, that is twelve 
times one. 

The next number is 123; that is beginning 
on the right, three units, and two tens, which 
make twenty and three ; and the third figure 
ffom the right, being in the place of hundreds, 
is one hundred ; that is three units, two tens, 
and one hundred, or one hundred and twenty 
three times one. 



ARTS. AXD SCIENCES. 51 

The following are the examples : 

76 Seven tens and six, or seventy six. 
1776 One thousand seven hundred and seventy- 
six. 
550 Five hundred and fifty. 
52407 Fifty two thousand four hundred and 
seven. 

After acquiring the art of enumeration or de- 
claring the numbers properly, the next step in 
arithmetic is that of 



BZ AN EPITOME OF ±BE 



CLASS m....LESSON II- 

ADDITION, 

Or the rule for adding two or more numbers 
together, and discovering the amount of the 
whole in one sum. 

The first principle of addition is, that the 
figures must be set under each other in their or- 
der, as units, tens, hundreds, &c. and if there 
are several sums to be added of unequal amount, 
the order must be from the right y as in the fol- 
lowing examples : 

I have one cent, a quarter dollar which is twen- 
ty five cents, and a dollar which is 100 cents, 
how must they stand to be added together, so as 
to find out the whole amount ? Place the unit 
ox. one cent first as follows i 

One cent • - - i cent. 

Quarter Dollar, tens. - - 25 cents. 

Dollar, hundreds, - - 100 hundred cents. 



126 



The numbers added together give one hun- 
dred and 26 cents ; the same course is to be 
pursued with any other numbers, as in the fol- 
lowing examples : 

20 75 . 122 43568 

4 1430 ' 71 3 

2237 1 3 19 



2261 1506 196 43590 

-Care must be taken to avoid the vulgar mode 
of expression, as two and three is five ; four and 
five is nine ; are must be used in place of is. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. S3 

If Elizabeth be possesse<i of 20 cherries, and 
Richard of 50, and Sidney of 2, how many have 
they all got, added together ? 

Elizabeth's share, - - 20 

Richard's - - - 50 

Sidney's - - ^ - 2 

Answer, 72 

The manner in which these are added, ought 
to be repeated by the learner, as. in the following 
examples: 

2 Two 10 Ten 

7 and seven 9 and nine 

9 are nine. 19 are nineteen- 



4 Four 11 Eleven 

3 and three are seven 1 and one are twelve 

6 and six are thirteen 2 and two are fourteen 

7 and seven 9 and nine 

20 are twenty. 23 are twenty-three. 

When larger numbers are to be added, it is 
proper to know why the surplus over the first 
digit or figure, is carried to the next computa- 
tion..,.for this purpose the following examples 
»re given : 

Add together the following numbers : 



BS:^ 



54 A!sr £piTaME er Tifis 





9803 

7541 

862 


Product oi Units 
.... Tens 

. . Hundreds 
, , . . Thousands 


. . 10 
. . 17. 
.30.. 
21 . . . 



24180 

You begin with 2 and 1 are 3, and 3 are 6, and 
4 are 10 ; in common practice it is usual to say 
nought and carry one, and then to say 1 and 6 
are 7, and so on, in the second colunan. 

To explain this, set down the product of each 
addition as above ; and the product 10 will be 
under tens ; 17 under hundreds ; and so forth ; 
the usual way of carrying the sum to the next 
column or term is for brevity ; the nature of 
which is here explained. The dots may be 
used until the pupil IS expert. ^ 

Addition of numbers of variaus denomma- 
tions next follows ; as for example.... 

I have three sums of money, ; I wish to 
know the whole amount. I first set down the 
dollars, and then knowing that a quarter ^of a 
dollar is 25 cents, and halt a dollar 50, 1 set 
the cents to the right of the dollars .s fol- 
lows ; 



120 and 25 cents. 

62 50 or half a dollar. 

22 75 or three quarters. 

205 50 



I add the cents together, and find the sum 
t© pe 20550 cents, or 205 doUars and fatty «ems. 



iklTS AND SCIENCES* 55 

SUBTRACTION, 
The sedond rule of Arithmetic is subtraction, 
which teaches how to take from a large number 
a smaller, and to determine exactly what re- 
mains. 

M.. In this rule, the figures must be placed in the 
same order as in addition, units under units, 
and so on....a line is then drawn under the se- 
cond number, and beginning with the figure on 
the right of the lower line, you proceed as in 
this question. 

Edward has cherries 50 

Elizabeth only 20 

What is the difference ? Amount. 30 

That is Elizabeth had 30 less than Edward. 

Benjamin had 53 marbles, of which Richard 
borrowed 14, how many remain with Ben- 
jamin I 

Here the question must be stated as before.- 

Benjamin's marbles 53 

Richard borrowed 14 

*How many remain ? Answer, 39 

This subtraction presents the first difficulty^ 
beginning with foury you say, 4 from 3, I can'ty 
but (adding ten to the three, which makes thir- 
teen) 4 from 13 and 9 remains ; and the figure 
of 9 is set down in, the proper place^ 

Having borrowed ten from the preceding 
number, in order to deduct, you now carry it 
back and say, carrying one to one, are twoM.*2 



Sfi JlN epitome of Tafi 

from 5 and three remain ; you then set down 
3 to the left of 9, which gives the sum of 39 left. 

Again ; Margaret borrowed fiom her sister Anas- 
tasia 

413 pins ; 
And pays in part, 239 How many arc 

due to Anastasia ? 

Answer, 1 74 

The course is the same with the figures 9 and 
3, as before with the 4 ; 9 cannot be deducted 
from 3, so ten are added to make 13, from 
which you deduct 4, carrying one to the three 
for that borrow ed ; you say carry one to three 
are four, from one I can't ; (you must therefore 
borrow ten as before, which added to one 
make eleven;) but 4 from 11 and seven remain; 
you then carry one to the figure 2, and say, 1 
and 2 are three, which deducted from 4 leave 
1 ; then setting down the l,the whole sum of 
174 is shewn. 

Subtraction of various numbers comes next..** 
example, 

I have lent William 300 dollars, of which he 
has paid me 10, 15, 62 and 11 dollars....How 
much remains due ? 

I first add those small sums together thus, and^ 
then place the amount. 

fio 
Aji^lS Q,.u.,,^. CLent 300 dollars, 

Lll 

Now due 202dollaj5 

98 paid me. — — 



AUTS AND SCIENCES. 



CLASS IIL...LESSON lU. 



5^ 



MULTIPLICATION, 

Is the third rule of arithmetic, it is but a short 
method of addition ; thus the multiplication of 
4 by 5, is only shortening the trouble of setting 
down the number 5 four times and adding them 
together ; but in large numbers the use is very 
great and saves great labon 

To use this rule properly, the following table 
must be got by heart : 







] 


MULTIPLICATION TABLE. 






" i 

2 

O 

4 
5 


2 
4 
6 
8 
10 


~3 
6 
9 
12 
15 
18 
21 
24 
27 

lo 

33 
36 


4 

8 

12 

16 

20 


5 
10 
15 


6 
12 
18 


7 
14 
21 


8 
16 
24 


9 


10 


11 


^2 i 


18 


20 


22 


24 1 


27 


30 


33 


36 1 


20 
25 


24 

30 


28 


32 


36 


40 


44 


48 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

, 12 


12 
14 
16 
18 

,22 
24 


24 

28 
32 

40 

44 
48 


30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 

m 


36 

42 
48 
54 
60 
66 

_r2_ 


42 
49 
56 
63 
70 
77 
84 


48 
56 
64 


54 
63 


60 


66 


72 


70 


77 


84 


72 


80 


88 


96 


72 
80 
88 
96 


81 

90 

99 

108 


90 
100 
110 


99 

no 

121 


108 f 

120 

132 


120 


132 


144 



* The number to be multiplied is placed over 
that by which it is to be multiplied. As if I 
want to know how many books altogether there 
are in 172 sets of Hume's History of England, I 
ask how manv volumes in one set, the answer is 



SS AS EMTOMi: OF THE 

eight volumes. ..♦then I must set down the num- 
ber of sets..., 

172 sets of Hume's History, 
Multiply by 8 volumes in a set, 

The whole, 1376 thirteen hundred and seventy 
■ six volumes. 

The use of this rule is not confined to the mul- 
tiplication of single numbers ; but may be used 
for ascertaining the compound amount of any 
numbers multiplied by others. When the mul- 
tiplier consists of two, three, or more figures, or 
cyphers, the first figure must, as in the preced- 
ing rules, be set down the same way, as in the 
following sum : 

There are in an orchard in Jersey, 274 trees 
in one row, and there are 45 rows, each of the 
same number, how many trees are in the orch' 
ard ? 

Multiplicand 1274 trees in each row 

Multiplier 45 rows 

First product 1370 if there were only five rows 

this would be the amount. 
2d product 1096 if forty rows this amount. 

Total 12330 

The reason for placing the first figure of the 
second product, under the first figure of the first 
product, is that it is the product of the tens..... 
the figure 4 of the 45 holding the place of the 
tens or 40 ; so if there were three figures in 
the multiplier, the product of the third should 
come under the hundreds. 



ARTS A5fD SCIENCES. §9 

Another example. ...Thtre are upwards of seven 
millions of persons in the United States.*..if each 
person contribute annually 150 cents, how much 
will it amount to ? 

Population, 7,000,000 

Contribution, 150 cenis. 



3500000 I 00 
7000000 ! 



Answer, 10,500,000 | 00 cents. 

The same method of placing dots or cyphers 
to occupy the places of tens, hundreds, &c. as is 
addition, would be particularly useful in learning 
this rule,. ..example. 

In China there are towns and cities 1 6504 
Average houses in each 1463 

How many houses ? ... 49512 units 

, . 99024 . tens 
. 66016 . . hunds. 
16504 . . . thous. 



Total number houses^, 24145352 



dQ AK EPITOME OF THE 



CLASS IIL..-LESSON IV. 

DIVISION, 

Is the last of the four fundamental rules of 
arithmetic, or upon which rules all others de- 
pend; It is the rule by which is found how 
many of any smaller given numbers are con- 
tained in a greater, and the overplus. 

There are three descriptions of numbers 
concerned in division. ...the dividend, or sum to 
be divided.*..the divisor, or lesser sum, which 
the dividend is to be divided by..^and the quo- 
tient, or result.. ..talce the following examples : 

I have 1376 volumes of Hume's history of 

England, which I wish to divide into sets each 

set contains 8 volumes, how many sets have I ? 

Dividend. 
Divisor 8 ) 1376 ( 172 Quotient. 
.8 



When the first figure on the left of the divi* 
dend is greater than the divisor, (for example, 
if it were 9) place the divisor under that figure $ 
but when it is greater as above, place it under 
the second figure, and say eight into thirteen 
once^ 8 from 13, five remain, place one to the 
quotient ; then bring down to the right of this 
remainder ihe next figure 7, and by your multi- 
plication table you will count how many times 8 



ARTS AND SCIENGES^ 61 

go into 57 ; for 7 times 8 are 56 :....then plage 

7 to the quotient and set 56 under the 57, and 
subtract, and the remainder is one ; bring down 
th« next'flgure of the dividend, and place it to 
the right of the remainder, and it makes six- 
teen ; then say 8 into sixteen twice, and place 2 
to the quotient and no remainder being left...» 
the quotient, shews that the number of sets of 

8 volumes is 172, 

OF PROPORTIONS. 
Coins, Weights, Measures. 

Eagle. Half Eagle. Dollar. Disraes. Cents. Mills. 

t =, 2 = 10 =i=: 100 = 1000 c= 10000 

1 = 5 = 50 = 500 = 5000 

1 =5 10 = 100 = 1000 

1 = 10 

Dollars, cents, and mills alone should be noted 
in accounts. 

TrtOY WEIGHT. 

Pound. Ounces. Penti/ wts. Grains. 

I — 12 = 240 = 5760 

1 = 20 = 480 

I = 24 

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT, 

Pound. Ounces. Drains. Scruples. Grains. 

I = 12 = 96 = 218 = 5760 

I = a = 24 = 280 

1=3= 60 

I = 20 

These two weights vary only in the division 
ifito drains and scruples by the apothecaries, 
who only use this weight in compounding medi- 
cines, they buy by averdupoise and sell by troy 
weight. Troy weight is used in the purchase 
and sale of jewellery, gold and silver and 
liquors. One grain of Troy weight is supposed 
to weigh a grain and a half of sound dry \^eat. 



6^ Ay EPITOME 6P TH« 

AVERDUPOISE WEIGHT. 

Ton. Hundred. Quarter. Pounds. Ouncet. Drams. 

1 == 20 = 80 = 2240 = 55840 = 573440 

1 = 4 = 112 = 1792 = 28672 

1 = 28 = 448 = 7168 

1 = 16 = 256 

I = 16 

By this measure Is weighed all grocery and 
cTther heavy goods, excepting precious metals, 
jewels, &c. 

TROY WEIGHT. 

1 pound averdupoise makes, 

Troy weight 14+ 11 f I5A 

1 ounce 18 -f- 5| 

1 dram 1 •+■ Oi 

LONG MEASURE. * 

Mile. Furlongs. Poles or Perches. Yai^s* Feet. Inches. 

1 = 8 = 230 = 1760 = 520 = 63360 

I = 40 = 220 = 660 -^ 7920 

1 == 5| = 16| 198 

1 = 3 => 36 

1 12 

An im^i is supposed to be the length of three 

grains of barley. 

Four inches...,ahand« 
Six feet, or two yards. ...a fathom. 
Three miles....a league. 

Sixty nautical or geographical miles a degree, 
or about 69j of our common miles. 
CLOTH MEASURE. 
Yard. Quarters. Nails. Indi 

I = 4 = 16 = 36 

1 = 4=9 

I = ^1 

3 quarters I Ell Flemish 

5 quarters 1 Ell English 

6 quarters I Ell French 



ARTS AND sciences; 6i 

LAND OR SQUARE MEASURE. 



Aerc. Roods. Sq. PoJes. Sq, Yds. Sq. Feet 


Sq. Inches. 


I = 4 ^ 43 = 5840 = 43560 = 


6272640 


1 = 40 = 1210 = 17898 = 


1568160 


1 == 301 = 2721 = 


49204 


1 ^ 9 == 


1296 


1 = 


144 


WINE MEASURE. 




Ton, Pipe or Butt. Puncheon. Hhd. Galons 


Pints. 


J -= 2 = 3 = 4 == 252 


= 2016 


1 =4=2= 126 


= 1008 


1 = 1| = 84 


= 672 


63 


= 504 


1 


=:: 8 



231 ruble inches.M.a gallon. 

10 gallons, an anker. 

18 gallons, a mudlet. 

31| gallons, a barrel. 

By this measure, wine, brandy, cyder, mead, 
vinegar, oil, and honey, are measured. 

The ale and beer measure differs from the 
wine measure in the cubic measure of the gallon, 
and contains 51 cubic inches more, or 212 cubic 
inches. 



Hhd. 


Barrel. 


Kilder. 


Fu-kin. 


G&UoRs. 


Pints. 


1 


= H 


== 3 = 


6 = 


51 


=== 408 




I 


= 2 = 


4 = 


34 


= 272 






1 = 


2 = 


17 


= 136 








1 = 


H 

1 


= 68 
== 8 






DRY MEASURE. 







The gallon dry measure contains 268| cubic 
inches.. "^ 



€^ 




A 


N JSPITOME 


OF THS 






Last. Ways. 


Qrs 


. Comb. Bush 


Pecks. Gallons 


J. fen4#. 


1 =: 


2 = 


10 


= 20 


= »0 


= S20 = 


640 


= 120 




1 = 


5 


= 10 


= 40 


= 180 = 


320 


= 2560 






I 


= 2 


= 8 


= 32 = 


64 


= 512 








i 


= 4 


= 16 = 


32 


= 25ft 










1 


1 = 


8 
2 

1 


=, 64 
= 16 
= 8 


By 


this 


measure all dry 


wares, such 


as com, 


seeds 


, fruits, 


roots, 


sand, 


salt, coals, 


kc. are 


measured. 






















TIME. 


■" 






Month. 




Weeks. 


Days. 


Hours. 




Minufes. 


r 


^ 


4 


!=: 


28 


= 672 


e= 


40320 






1 


;^' 


7 


x= 168 


= 


10080 










I 


= 24 
I 


r= 


1440 
60 



1 



This distribution of time is not exactly con- 
formable to the calendar, for the solar and lunar 
month both differ from it j but it approaches 
nearest the lunar. The solar time is calculated 
by this proportion of parts, but the time of the 
calendar alters the term months, according to 
the following old verse : 

Thirty days hath September, 

April, June, and November ; 

February alone hath eight and a score., 

But ev'ry leap year gains one more. 
The calendar year has 52 weeks, which is foiA- 
weeks more than the computation by months of 
28 day 5. ...this is explained in the lessons on as- 
tronomy and chronology., 

OF NUMERICAL LETTERS. 
^ What were those figures mentioned as in 
use-^ before the present figures in arithmetic were 
bT6\ight from Asia to Europe f 



AHTS AND SCIENCES. 65 

A. The Hebrews, Greeks, qind Romans, used 
the letters of their alphabet for numbers ; the 
Roman numeral letters ^vere in use in Europe^ 

^. As those numerals are still found on 
watches, clocks, and freq.uently in the titles of 
books, and in ancient monuments^ they ought to 
be known ;, describe them* 

A. They are as follow : 

I signifies - * • i 

V . . . - - 5 

X - . - - . * 10 

L - • - . - 50 * 

c loa 

CC 200 

D . - . . - . 500 

M , - - - - - 1000 

To explain this mode of enumeration, a course 
is pursued not necessary with Asiatic numerals* 
Ta express the number two,, three or four^ in 
the Asiatic, we write 2, 3, 4 ; but in the Roman,, 
we must write II. IIK IV* In this number the 
figure or letter I*^ placed to the letw of that which 
represents five, reduces it to four, and placed to 
the right thus VI. encreases it to six....the same 
practice is pursued with IX, which makes it one 
less than ten or X.*«and with other numbers, for 
example : the letter L represents 50....to express 
40, that is 10 less, the letter X is placed before 
the L thus, XL...»change the position of the X to 
the other side thus, LX. and it represents sixty^ 
The rule for determining by the position of these 
letters, is when a sign or letter of less value 
stands before a greater, the greater is so much: 
diminished y when a sign or letter of less value 
stands after a greater sign, the value is so mucb 
enereased ; as in the following examples t- 

I 2: 



6^ AN EPlTPOAfE OF THE 

DIMINISHED. ENCREA;SEDr 

IV four * 4 VI SIX 6 

IX nine 9 XI eleven U 

LX forty 40 LX sixty 60 

XC ninety 90 CX one bund: & ten 110 

CD four hundred 400 DC six hundred 600 

M,DCC,LXXVI expresses the dale of Ame- 
rican independence^ 

M being one thousand - ^ 1000 

- 500 

100 

. . 100 

- 50 

la 

- 10 

5 

. I 

177^: 

The preference given to the oriental figures^ 
may be better understood by attempting to state 
a sum in addition in the Roman uujiaexal^. 



D 


five hundred - 


C 


one hundred 


C 


one hundred - 


L 


fifty - - 


X 


ten 


X 


ten - 


V 


five 


I 


on« - 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 67 



CLASS ra....LESSON VL 

GEOMETRY. 

^. What is geometry ? 

A* A science teaching the mensuration oi 
quantity in all its extents, length, breadth, and 
thickness. 

^ What is the fneaningof the word geometry ? 

-4* It is derived from the Greek, and signifies 
the art of measuring the earth. It is supposed 
to have had its rise among the Egyptians, who 
were compelled to invent it, to remedy the dis- 
orders occasioned in their lands by the annual 
overflowings of th^ river Nile, which defaced 
every boundary. 

^ How is quantity distinguished ? 

Ab It is like other science for simplicity, di- 
vided into lines, superficies, and solids. 

^ What is aline ? 

A. A line is formed by the motion of a point, 
and therefore is one dimension only, i. e. lengths 

^ How is a superfice generated ? 

A» By the motion of a line, and so hath three 
dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness. 

^ How is geometry applied I 

A. Into three principal parts. 

1. Altimetrtfy which is applied to the measuring 
all heights, accessible or inaccessible. 

2. Pla7iimetri/y which teaches the mensuration 
of planes or surfaces in square measures, 
such as square miles, yards, feet, inches, &c. 
as land surveying. 

%• Stereometry^ which is the mensuration of att 
kinid§ of solid bodjes, in solid or cubic mear- 



AN EPITOME OP THE 

sures, as cubic feet, cubic inches, &c. This 
also includes guaging^ or the art of finding 
the contents of any cask or vessel, or the 
quantity of liquor contained in them.. ..also 
timber measure, superficial and solid. 
MECHANICS. 

^. What is the proper signification of me- 
chanics ? 

A. It is that science which teaches the nature 
and laws of motion^ the action and force of 
moving bodies ; and the construction and effects 
of all those machines and engines which go by 
the name of mechanic powers. 

^. What is motion ? 

A^ A continual and successive, change of 
place. 

^. What is rest? 

A^ The continuance of the body in the same, 
place for any time. 

^ Pray explain what is meant by a mechanic 
power ? 

ji. Any machine or engine by which a man 
can raise a greater weight, or overcome a great- 
er resistance than he could do by his natu- 
ral strength without it, is called a mechanical 
power. 

^. How many mechanic powers are there ? 

A. They are said to be six in number.. ..name- 
fy, the lever ^ by which we lift weights much 
greater than our strength, unassisted, could- 
overcome : the axle and xvheel^ by which we can 
lift them to greater heights : the pulley lifts them 
higher still : the screw^ which, if it could move 
without friction, would give a greater force than 
any of the rest : the xuedge used in cleaving 
Wood,.&c. and the i7iclined plaiie^ by which hea- 



ARTS ANH SCIENC:ES. 



vy bodies are rolled up with greater ease. And 
of these all the most useful compound engines 
BOW consist ; as clocks, watches, orreries, mills, 
most sorts of water engines, and an infinite 
number of others. 

OF AGRICULTURE. 

^. What is agriculture ? 

A* It is the art of cultivating the earth ; and 
consists, like all other arts, of theory and prac- 
tice. The practice of agriculture is the mere 
ploughing or digging up the soil, sowing the 
grain or vegetable seed, and gathering it when 
ripe ; and this may be done well by a strict 
imitation of what has been before done. 

^. What is the theory of agriculture ? 

A. It is properly a science, and comprehends 
enquiries into the nature and properties of bo* 
dies, such as earths, minerals, salts, fluids, veg-e- 
tation, and the causes of the operations of nature 
by these agents, and is properly connected with 
geology, mines, botany, alogy, and chemistry, 
which all farmers should study... .the skilful 
agriculturalist is called a husbandman, and his 
art husbandry. 

^. How do the other sciences promote agri* 
culture ? 

A. By making men better acquainted with 
the faculties and properties of natural bodies. 

The study of chemistry teaches the nature of 
the various kinds of earth, the effects of differ- 
ent manures by which soil is fertilized. Botany 
teaches the food of plants ; the vegetables fitted 
to particular soils ; the modes of guarding 
against danger to his crops, and the diseases 
and insects which injure them. The knowlege 



70 AS EPITOME ©F THE 

of animated nature is also useful, as the hus- 
bandman will take care to have a good stock of 
cattle, and the proper mode of rearing them, the 
business of the dairy, and the sheep fold, come 
within his province. Mechanics are of impor- 
taace to him, as on the machinery which he em- 
ploys will depend the goodness of his tillage, 
and the speed and economy with which it is con- 
ducted. 

Agriculture is not only the oldest but th€ 
most useful of all arts.. ..and writings upon it 
were composed by Hesiod 900 years before 
Christ, by Mago the Carthagenian, 200 A. C . 
by Virgil, Cato the Censor, celebrated Romans ; 
by Columella in 12 books, a native of Gades j 
ty Varro. The celebrated Sully called agricul- 
ture one of the breasts from which the state drawa 
its nourishment. 

ARCHITECTtJRE. 

^. What is architecture ? 

A. The art of building or raising all kinds of 
edifices by rule ; as houses, churches, palaces, &c. 

^. How is architecture distinguished ? 

A. Into three sorts.... civil, military and naval. 

^. In what consists civil architecture ? 

A, In external ornaments and internal con- 
veniencies. 

^. What are the orders of civil architecture? 

A, They are generally reckoned five; 1. the 
Tuscan ; 2. the Doric ; 3. the Ionic ; 4. 
the Corinthian, and 5. the Composite. Ta 
these may be added the Gothic, Saracenic, and 
Oriental, all of which styles of building, are 
still preserved in the construction of churches in 
Europe and Asia. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 71 

^ Whence are the names of those orders 
derived ? 

A. The Tuscan, from the people of Tuscany 
or Etruria : the Doric from a Greek nation of 
that name : the Ionic and Corinthian from two 
other Greek nations : the Composite, from a 
composition of orders, in which the beauties of 
both the Ionic and Coritithian are united ; the 
Gothic from the northern nations ; the Saracenic 
from the Saracens or Arabians ; the Oriental 
from the style of the Hindus. 

^. What are the qualifications necessary for 
a good architect ? 

A. He ought to understand drawing, ma- 
thematics, geometry, perspective optics, history, 
fable. 

^ In what consists military architecture, call- 
ed fortification ? 

A. In constructing such works as are adapted 
to defend a town against military assaults, and 
enable a small number of men within, to with- 
stand for a considerable time, the assaults of a 
greater number without. A town fortified is 
called ?i fortress. 

^ What is naval architecture ? 

A. The art of constructing vessels, whether 
for the service of war or commerce. 

PAINTING. 

^. What is painting? ^ 

A» An art, which by determined principles, a 
good taste, and frequent practice, represents io 
pictures the likenesses of animated and inani- 
mate things ; and which teaches by drawing, 
and the application of colors, to represent 5ul 
sorts of sensible objects. 



%2 AN E1?IT0ME OF THE 

^ What are the most esteemed paintmgs? 

A^ Those representing historical events. 

^. How many modes of painting are there ? 

A. Five: 1. in oil; 2. in fresco; 3. in 
water colors ; 4. on glass ; and 5. in enamel ; 
to which may be added, miniature and pastel. 
Painting in oil was unknown to the ancients. 
The art has received the greatest advantage from 
this discovery. 

^ What are the qualifications of an excellent 
painter ? 

A. He ought to understand mathematics and 
the laws" of proportion, the anatomy of all 
animals, and no science should be strange to 
him; and drawing in its highest perfection.— 
He ought to have a perfect knowlege of anatomy 
and geometry/ He ought to be conversant in 
history and other sciences, and to have great 
judgment and patience : to be sober, and fond 
of his art. -^ 

SCULPTURE. 

^. What is sculpture ? 

-4» The art of carving or hewing stone or 
metal into images. Every thing that is engrav- 
ed or worked in relievo, makes a part of this 
art. 

Its antiquity appears from many places of the 
holy scripture....from the idols of Laban, which 
Rachel carried off, and from the golden calf set 
up by the Israelites in the desert. 

COMMERCE. 

^ What is commerce ? 

A* The art of exchanging one thing for ano- 
ther, or buying or selling merchandize, &c. with 
an intention to gain. 



1 



AKfS XKD SCIENCES* T3 

^. Has commerce been a iong time invent* 

A. Men could not exist in society with- 
out it, ^nd therefore it must be coeval with 
society, and as ancient as mankind. At first 
it consisted in nothing more than the exchange 
of things necessary for life, as it is at present 
practised on the coasts of Siberia j Norwegian 
Lapland^ and Russian Lap land... ^^i-nongst many 
nations of Africa^ and Asia^ and almost all the 
Indian nations of America. 

^ Was money, which we find of such infinite 
use in commerce, known in early ages ? 

A* The term early ages is very indefinite ; 
besides, we know very little with certainty, of 
what is called the early ages ; w^. know that 
money, as a means of exchange, was current in 
Asia, many ages before the history of the He- 
brews, Greeks, and Romans ; and we know that 
it was common among all the ancient commer- 
cial nations, and that at Tyre^ and Rhodes, and 
Carthage, and Athens, they had not only coined 
money, but also had insurance .offices and usu- 
rers* . 

^ What nations have made themselves most 
famous by their commerce ? 

A. The Phenicians, Egyptians.^ Carthageni- 
ans, Athenians, Rhodians, Romans, Gauls, and 
Flemings... .afterwards the Venetians, Genoese, 
Pi^ans, Etrurians, and Dutch : the Dutch rose up-, 
on the fall of the Hansetowns ; and the British 
overwhelmed the Dutch, and became the mer- 
chants of the universe ; they have carried on the 
most -extensive commerce in the world. Next 
tp England, the United States have carried on 
the most extensive commerce. 



7-^ AN EPITOME OF THE 

^. To what cause was the extension and faci- 
lity of commerce principally to be attributed ? 

A. To the discovery of the principle of- the 
magnet, and the invention of the mariners com- 
pass ; the art of printing gave it new force. 

^. What is the principle of the magnet ? 

A. It is a quality in magnets, which always 
points in one direction, that is to the north.. ..by 
which means it could be known on board a ship 
out of sight of land in the darkest night, in what 
direction she was sailing. 

^. What were those towns you call the 
Hanse towns ? 

A. They consisted of an association of cities 
and towns in different parts of Europe, which 
formed a confederation for the purpose of car- 
rying on trade, and protecting each other against 
pirates : the name is derived from hansa a 
league or confederation. They commenced with 
Lubec and Hamburg in 1109. 

The Hanse towns consisted of 72 European 
cities, among which were Lubec, Hamburg, 
Rostoc, Stralsund, Wismar, Crypswald, An- 
clam, Stetin, Colberg, Stolpe, Dantzic, Elbing, 
Koningsburg, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Rotter- 
dam, Bruges, Ostend, Dunkirk, Middleburg, 
Calais, Rouen, Bordeaux, St* Malo, Bayonne, 
Bilboa, Lisbon, Seville, Cadiz, Carthagena, 
Barcelona, Marseilles, Leghorn, Naples, Mes- 
sina, London, &c. 

^. What is the state of the Hanse towns at 
this time ? 

A. They were reduced to four prior to the 
French revolution ; that is, Hamburg, Bremen, 
Lubec, and Dantzic. ...Prussia seized on the lat- 
ter after partitioning Poland.. ..but in 1810, they 
were all annexed to the French empire. 



AUTS AND SCIENCBS, 75 

AN EPITOME 

OF THE 

ARTS JiXB SCIE;\'CES.^ 



CLASS IV....LESSON L 

OF CHRONOLOGY, OR THE DIVISION OF TIME. 
«• A little chronology will be highly useful." Knox. 

^. WHAT is chronology ? 

A, A science that teaches the method of mea- 
suring time, and distinguishing the periods of 
history and dates of great events : literally, it 
is a discourse concerning time : as it is 
applied, it is the measure of time, in relation to 
human affairs or events ; so that the precise 
point of time, at which any two or more events 
have occurred, may be so accurately known, as 
not to be confounded with either, or any other ; 
and in this view it is considered as one of the 
eyes of history. 

^ What is time ? 

A^ Time is the duration of existence ; its parts 
are centuries, years, months, weeks, days, houra, 
minutes, seconds, &c. and by these the larger 
and less intervals of time are estimated and 
measured. 

^ Are there not many modes of dividing 
time, as into natural and artificial time ? 



(^ AX EPITOMB OJe* THE 

A. There are many which we may thus ex> 
plain.... Day is while the sun illumines the hori- 
AQXi ; night, the period during which the horizon 
is in darkness, from the absence of the sun. 

The natural day is also that period of time in 
which the earth performs a single revolution of 
Hs equator- 

The artificial or civil day is of various kinds^ 
and ''accords with the rules or customs of those 
v^'ho begin and close their computation of a day 
at one or another period of time... .some com- 
puting- from the rising, and others from the set- 
ting of the sun.. ..others from noOn, and others 
still from midnight. 

The ancient Babylonians, Persians, Syrians, 
and some of the Greeks, computed their day 
.l^om the rising of the sun. 

The Athenians, Jews, some of the Germans, 
tKe Italians, and Chinese, compute the day from 
the sun setting. 

1'he Arabians, the ancient Umbri, and modern 
listronomers, from noon, or when tht^ sun is in the 
meridian. Manners also begin their journals 
at sea, and count their day's work from noon. 

The Egyptians, Romans, French, Spanish, 
British, Batavians, some Germans, Portuguese, 
and the Americans, compute the day from the 
period when the sun is in our nadir, or in the 
point opposite to the zenith. 

As the time of beginning the day has varied, 
so have the artificial proportions of the day ; 
some dividing the whole period of the naturaf 
day into twelve parts only.... some into twenty- 
four parts, which were counted from one to 
iwenty.four in succession : our mode of dividing 
the day into two portions of twelve hours each| 



ABTS AND SCI5Ji[;CES. ' 77 

is the most prevalent. Th^ hours are measured 
by watches and clocks ; the ancient Greeks, and 
modern Hindus, measured time by an instrument 
called a clepsydra, which was a plate or bowl of 
metal, placed on the surface of a large measure 
of water, and which filled through an aperture 
in its bottom, in a certain time. 

^. How m^ny days are there in a year ? 

A. Three hundred and sixty-five. 

^. Is this number always the same ? 

A. No \ it changes every four years, and t!ie 
fourth year, which is called Bissextile, or leap 
year, has always one day more. 

^. How comes this change ? 

A. Every year consists of 6 hours nearly 
over the 365 days. These hours in four years 
amount to one whole day, which is then added 
at the end of February ; on this account it is 
that this month has twenty-nine days once in 
four years. This is our chronological year. 

^. What is a month ? 

A. A m.onth is just the time wherein the moon 
is going round the earth, which revolution she 
performs in twenty-seven days, seven hours, and 
forty-three minutes j so that there are thirteen 
lunar months in a year, and about eleven days 
more, though, for conveniency, and greater regu- 
larity, the months are made but twelve in our al- 
manacs, by adding a greater number of days t© 
each month than it really contains. 

i^. How many weeks are there in a year ? 

A. Fifty-two. 

^. How many days are there in a week ? 

A. Always seven. 

^. How are they named ? 

A^ Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday-^ 
Thursday, Friday, and Saturday. 
<?2 



t^; Air EPlTOME OF TUK 

^. Do all nations reckon them in the same or- 
der t 

A. No. ...The Christians count from Sunday, 
in memory of the resurrection of Jesus Christ ; 
the Jews from Saturday.... the Mahomedans 
from Friday. 

^ How were the months and years regulated ? 

yi. Among the most ancient nations the year 
was accounted to contain 360 days : this was 
the Mosaic year ; but it was found by the rota- 
tion of the months, which in time fell in different 
seasons from those by which they were named, 
that the natural year contained more than this 
distribution. According to the records of the 
Hindus they first corrected the error, and had 
even made allowance for the precession of the 
equinoxes. The Egyptians, however, attributed 
to Hermes, the addition of five intercaliary 
months : but even this fell short of the truth. 

The Grecian year was divided into 12 synodic 
months, of 29 and 30 days alternately ; but this 
made only 354 days, and was more deficieat still. 

The Roman year, introduced by Romulus, 
and reformed by Numa 670 years before Christ, 
was regulated by lunar months, or revolutions of 
the moon, and days were occasionally added to 
adapt the seasons to the solar year^ 

Julius Caesar altered the year to 445 days^ 
which was an excess ; but Sosigines, a mathema- 
tician of Alexandria, advised a different regu- 
lation of SG5 days and 6 hoiirs, which was adopt- 
ed ; but as the si\ hours could not be noticed 
in civil use, he ordered them to be neglected uU 
the fourth year, when they amounted to a day, 
and that year contained 366 days, which i5 the 
origin of our bissextile or leap year. 



AUTS AND SCIEI^^CESV 7^ 

^ How was this bissextile or day added to 
the leap year formed ? 

A. By the addition of a day, which was made 
after the Roman feast of Terininalia^ or the 23d 
of February, or the sixth of the calends of 
March fSexttis Calendas 3IartiiJ this day in- 
stead of being counted like our 29th of Februa- 
ry, was ordered to be counted twice ; that is 
two days of the same date, 6lh calends of March ; 
whence the origin of the word Bissextile^ the leap 
year being called by that name, having two 6th 
or calends of March, from 5i.9, twice, sextus^ six^ 

^. Kow did the Romans divide their month ? 

A Into calends, nones, and ides ; calling the 
first ol every month its calends. 

^c Did the Romans reckon their months like 
us? 

A. No ; they had first only ten, afterwards 
they added two, but they always began their 
year at March. 

^. What is meant by new style ? 

A. It was the alteration of this Julian or old 
style»...for this system still w^as defectiv^e, or rath- 
er excessive by eleven minutes ; as in every 13S 
years it was found to amount to a whole day ; for 
in A. D. 325 the vernal equinox fell upon March 
21st, and in 1582 it fell upon the 11th March. 

Pope Gregory the XIII. undertook to correct 
this error, which is the origin of what is called 
the nexvstyle^ and directed that the whole of the 
days between 11 and 21 should be suppressed^ 
and that the 12th should be calculated as the 
21st of March, and to prevent the like variatiori 
in future, he directed that in every four years 
terminating four centuries, the three first year& 
shall be common and the fourth bissextile, ac- 



80 AN EPITOME OF THE 

cording to the Gregorian calculation ; whereas, 
according to the Julian all would be leap years. 
It was in conformity to the Gregorian calendar, 
that the year 1800, which would have been leap 
year, counted as an ordinary year, and that 
1804 was the first leap year after 1796. 

The Gregorian style was not, through preju- 
dice, adopted in England till 1752 ; it is not 
adopted yet in Russia, M^here the dayS of the 
month are 11 days behind our dates. 

^ Are the hours equally irregular. ? 

A. The most ancient hour^s supposed to be 
equal to two of our modern hours ; that is 12 
hours in a day. The Hindu hour is, however, 
the 60th part of a natural day, which they call a 
gwrif^ and each hour or gurry contains 24 
minutes and each minute 24 seconds. 

^. \VTiat is a year ? 

A. The solar or chronological year is a space 
of twelve months ; which is the time the sun 
takes in passing through the twelve signs of the 
zodiac. 

^. Do the years of all nations commence at 
the same time ? 

A> No ; the Christian nations generally be- 
gin their year as we do ; excepting those of the 
Armenian church, who still begin at March. 
Nations not Christians, begin their year at vari- 
ous periods ; some with the vernal equinox ; 
some with the autumnal y and in some parts of 
Asia, the year is computed by the harvests. 

^. What is a century ? 

A. A century is a course of a hundred years ; 
and estimated frequently as three ages, in ths 
succession of generation* 



ABTS AND SCIENCyaS. 



CLASS 1V,...LESS0N II. 

OF CHRONOLOGY. 

^ YOU mentioned the chronologicar year 
.•••is there any other ? 

A. Yes, several.. ..there are three kmds of 
solar years, and four kinds of lunar months. 

1. The tropical year, or the interv^al at the 
end of which the sun returns to a given point of 
the ecliptic, consisting of 365d 5h 48' 48". 

2. The sidereal year, or term at which the sun 
returns to a given star, of 365d6h 9* 10'^ 

3. The anomalistical yt2ir^ or period when the 
sun returns to the same apsis ; 365d 6h 9' 19". 

The months likewise vary ; there are lunar . 
months of four kinds. 

1. Periodical^ or the interval marked by the 
return of the moon to the first point of Aries, in 
27d7h43'5\ 

2. Sidereal^ its return to a fixed star, 27d 7li 
43' 12". 

3. Synodzcal^ or the term of its return to the 
sun, 29(^1 2A 44' 3 ^ 

4. Anomalisticaly or term, when it returns to 
its apogee, of 2Td 13/z 18' 33". In comparing 
the lunar ^ith the solar month, the synodical 
must be understood. 

^. Have not the poets made another division 
of history ? 

A. Yes. ...they distinguished first the golden 
age, which they attributed to Saturn and Rhea^. 
meaning by it, the more perfect and happy state 
of men in the first ages of the word. 

2d. The second, the silver age, ascribed to the 
reign of Jupiter, and which extended to the tiiufe- 



82 x?r EPITOME or the 

that tyrants appeared among the human race ; 
who, to render themselves powerful, oppressed 
mankind by violence and injustice. 

3d. The third was the brazen age, which was 
when rapacious men, possessed with the lust of 
dominion, endeavored to reduce their brethren 
to a state of slavery. 

4th. The fourth age is that of iron^ when all 
sorts of crimes began. They allege that the 
iron age still continues. 

^. Whence is the notion of four ages de- 
rived ? 

A. It appears to have been borrowed like the 
greater part of the Egyptian and Grecian insti- 
tutions, from Asia. The four ages, or joiigs^ 
strictly correspond with the golden, silver, bra- 
zen, and iron ages, of the Hindu chronology. 

^ What is the zodiac ? 

A. A circle, shewing the earth's annual or 
yearly path through the heavens. On this cir- 
cle are marked the twelve signs, which are 
numbers of stars reduced by the fancy of men, 
into the forms of animals, and may be described 
in order thus : 

The ram^ the bull^ the heav*nly twinsy 
And next the crab the lto?i^ shines,, 

The -virgin and the scales : 
The scorfiiorij archer^ and sea-goat j 
The man that holds the water fiot^ 

And fish with glittering tails. 

^. What is meant by the seasons of the year ? 

An The changes and varieties which happen 
in nature by the yearly revolution of the earth 
round the sun. 

^. How many are there ? 

A^ Four without the tropics. 



ARTS AJC» SCIENCES. 83 

^. How are they called ? 

A. Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter. 

^. How long does each season continue ? 

A. Three months. Spring begins on the 21st 
of March, Summer on the 21st of June, Autumn 
on the 23d of September, and Winter on the 
21st of December. 

^. Are not the seasons the same within the 
tropics ? 

A. No....where there is neither frost nor 
snow, nor a general fall of the leaf, there is no 
winter. 

^ When is the length of the day and night 
equal ? 

A. This happens twice in every year, once on 
the 21st of March, and again on the 21st of Sep- 
tember. Both these are called the equinoxes ; 
or equal nights. 

^ How do we call the light that appears be- 
fore the rising and the setting of the sun ? 

A. The light seen before the sun is called Au^ 
rora^ and after the sun sets, the twilight ; mean« 
ing between light and darkness. 

^. What do you call the dog days ? 

A* Those intensely hot days between the 19th 
of July, and the 28th of August : the star called 
the great dog star, during that time, was observ- 
ed to rise and set with the sun, and from thence 
the name was given. 

^ When is the longest day ? 

A. On the 21st of June, at the beginning of 
summer ; after which they begin gradually to 
decrease. 

^. When is the shortest day ? 

A. The 21st of December, at the beginning 
of the winter ; after which, they begin gradually 
to encrease. 



8^ AN EPITOME QF THE 

^ Is this change the same in every part ol 
the earth ? 

A. No....it is more or less, according as the 
country is situated farther from, or nearer to the 
ecliptic, or course of the sun. There are, for 
example, some countries where the length of the 
day and night is always exactly, or nearly the 
same ; others, where the night, during the sum- 
mer season, is only an hour ; others %vhere night 
continues always six months, and the day conse- 
quently as many. This variety in the length of 
the day and night is explained by the globe. 

^ What other name is given to the 2 1st June? 

A* The Slimmer solstice^ because then the sun 
apparently stops short in his journey towards 
the north, and begins to return southward. 

^. And what other name is given to the 21st 
of December? 

A. The xvinter soktice^ because then the sun 
'apparently stops short in his course towards the 
south, and begins to return northward. 

^. What are the names of the twelve months 
in their order? 

A^ January, February, March, April, May, 
June, July, August, September, October, No- 
vember, December. 

^ How many days does each of these months 
contain ? 

A. Seven have thirty-one days ; four have thir- 
ty days; and one has twenty-eight, or twenty-nine. 

According to these verses : 

Thirty days hath September, 
April, June, and November ; 
February twenty -eight alone, 
All the rest have thirty-ojxe. » 
But in leap year time, 
February hath twenty-nine. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 85 

^ What is an Olympiad ? 

A. A space of four years. The ancient Greeks 
reckoned in this manner, because they celebrated ' 
their games at the beginning of every fifth year, 
which were contests in all the manly exercises, 
such as wrestling, boxing, running, chariot races, 
&c. in a plain near the town of Olympias ; for 
this reason they were called Olympiads. They 
^e said to have been instituted by Hercules, in 
honor of Jupiter, 774 years before Christ* 

^. What is an epoch ? 

A* An epoch is a certain point of time, from 
which historians begin to reckon ; as the crea- 
tion of the world, the building of Rome, the birth 
-of Christ, the destruction of Jerusalem, the de- 
claration of independence, &c. 

^ What is an era ? 

A. It marks the time from one memorable 
event to another. For example....from the cre- 
ation of the warld to the deluge, is. an era. 

^ What is an age ? 

A. The word age has more than one chrono- 
logical signification : it is sometimes used to 
signify a century, or a period of one hundred 
years.. ..thus we say the 18th century, or that 
age, meaning the time beginning with the first 
of January 1701, and ending with the 31st 
December 1800, a century or age* It is some- 
times used in a more confined sense ; as the 
Augustan age. ...meaning the period of time, or 
r^eign ©f Augustus. The dark ages. ...meaning 
the period between the fall of the Roman em- 
pire, and the revival of letters ; which some make 
to consist of five, and others of seven centuries. 
The age of Charlemagne, in the beginning of 
the 9th century ; the age of Chivalry, or the age 
when romance had usurped the place of reas^ou.. 

H 



8g AN EPITOME OF THE 

The average length of human life is called an 
age, that is about 30 years ; certain periods of 
human life are also designated by the word age, 
as infancy, youth, manhood, and old age. In a 
legal sense age is very important; orphans are 
of age to choose guardians at 14; all youth at 
18 are liable to be called upon to defend their 
country, and all above 45 are exempted, the period 
between 18 and 45 therefore is the military age ; 
at 21 persons are declared to be of age, and com- 
petent to act for themselves without guardians* 

^. What is a lustrum ? 

A. A period of five years ; being tlie time at 
which the census or enumeration of the Roman 
people was taken ; thence the common expres- 
sion of havhig passed so many lustres ; meaning 
so many periods of five years, as ten lustres 
means fifty years. 

^ What is a cycle ? 

A. A period of time in which the same revo- 
lutions are renewed ; such as the revolutions of 
the sun and moon. The cycle of the sun, is a 
period of 28 years, which being completed, the 
days of the months return to the same days of 
the week, as at the beginning of the cycle. The 
cycle of the moon, is a period of 19 years, in 
which the new moon and full moon, return to 
the same days of the year as at the beginning of 
the 19 years. 
^ ^ What is the use of these cycles ? 

A. By the solar cycle, the dominical letter or 
Sunday letter is determined : the y^ar of the 
lunar cycle, is called the prime or golden num- 
ber ; and from both, the feast of Easter is 
determined iu the calendar of several christia* 
churches. 



ARTS A?rD SCIENC£& 8T 

^» What Is a Jubilee ? 

A. A public festival. 

^ What is an indiction ? 

A. A revolution of fifteen years, used only by 
the Romans for indicating' the times of certain 
payments made by the people to the govern- 
ment. It was established by Constantine, in the 
year 312. 

According to the epoch by which we reckon, 
we date the time of every memorable transac- 
tion, as 

A. M. i. e. Ajino Mundi^thQ year of the world. 

A. D. i. G.AnnoDo?ninif the year of our Lord. 

Ab U. C. i. e. ai iirbe condita^ from the build* 
ing of the city of Rome, and so of the other 
epochs. 

For example, we say, 

Noah's flood happened A. M. 1656. 

The kings were expelled, and consular gov- 
ernment established at Rome, ab U. C. 244. 

Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the 
west, A. D. 800. 

America w^as discovered by Christopher Co- 
lumbus, October 11, 1492. 

South America was discovered by Americus 
Vespucius in 1497. 

Philadelphia was founded in 1683. 

Boston was evacuated by the British, March 
17, 1776. 

The Declaration of American Independence, 
4 July, 1776. 



^S AX EPITOME OF THE 



ClrASS rV ....LESSON III. 

HISTORY. 

^. WHAT is history I 

A. History is a narration of the transactions 
of nations and individuals. It is derived from 
the Greek istoria^ meaning a search after curi- 
ous things, a desire of knowlege, or a descrip- 
tion of things as they had been seen. 



^ 



. What are the divisions of history ? 



A. With regard to time, it is usually divided 
into ancient and modern ; by others it has ob- 
tained another division into three classes, that 
is: 1. The (?foct/r^ or uncertain age ; 2. The 
htroic or fabulous age ; 3* The historical 
age. This last age begins with the first Greek 
Olympiad, which was 776 years before the 
Christian era, and 23 years before the founding 
of Rome ; and ended with the 364th Olympiad, 
440 years after the birth of Christ. 

^ Are these all the divisions ? 

A* By no means ; with regard to subject or 
matter, it is divided into sacred^ natural j civil^ 
personal^ and singular ; there is beside, artifi- 
cial history, or an account of the progress of the 
arts ; and miscellaneous history, which treats of 
the occurrences of human life ; and there is still 
another, that \% sac red ^ and profane ^ancient ^viid- 
dle^ and modern. 

-so What is sacred history ? 

A, Sacred history is that which is recorded in 
the Old and New Testament. The Old Testa- 
ment contains the history of the Jews, or He- 
brews, or those who were called the people of 
God. The New Testament contains the histo* 



ARTS AJTD S0IEXC15S* 89 

fy of Jesus Christ, and his disciples, who are 
called, after his name, Christians ; a branch of 
this is called ecclesiastical or church history. 

^ What is profane history ? 

A. All other history beside holy scripture is 
called profane, but particularly that of the Hea- 
then gods, demi-gods, and heroes : which see 
under the article mythology. 

^. What is ancient history ? 

A* Ancient history h the account of all na- 
tions, from the creation of the world to the birth 
of Christ. 

^. What fs modern history ? 

A. It is the continuation of history from the 
birth of Christ to the present time. 

^. What is civil history ? 

A. It is the narration of the internal histoiy 
of states, and is classed into general and particu- 
lar; or into political, juridical, and domestic; 
in a more extended sense, civil history is under- 
stood by universal history. 

^. What is personal history ? 

A. It is usually called biography, as it records 
facts relating to one person, or a number of 
persons ; the lives of eminent men by Plutarch.^ 
is an admirable example. 

^. What is particular history ? 

A. It is the description of a single action or 
event, a siege, battle, a war. 

^. What is the earliest written history we 
have ? 

A. That of the creation of the world, in the 
Old Testament, the fall of man, the universal 
deluge, or flood, the preservation of the human 
race in the family of Noah^ and the re-peopling 
the several nations by his three sons and their 
posterity* 



2i} AX EPITOME OF THE 

^. Is there not another division of history ? 

A. Yes, into four remarkable periods or eras 
called the four universal mt)Darchies ; but the 
idea is fanciful rather than solid. 

^ Why were they called universal ? 

A. Because each of them extended over the 
greatest part of the then known world. 

^. What was the first of these universal mo# 
jnarchies ? 

A* The Assyrian empire^ founded by Nimrod, 
the son of Cush, and grandson of Ham, i>n the 
year of the Mosaic chronology 1800 : was coa- 
tinued by his son Ninus, and after him by his 
wife Semiramis, and ended under Sardanapalus^. 
in 3250, enduring 1450 years. 

^ What was the second monarchy ? 

A. The Persian*. It began with Cyrus, in 
the year of the world 3468, and ended with D^i. 
rius's being conquered by Alexander called the 
Great, in 3670, before Christ 330, lasting a lit- 
tle more than 200 years. 

i\. By whom was the third nxonarchy esta* 
blished? 

A. The Grecian^ which was the third vmiver- 
Aal monarchy, was established by Alexander, of 
^Macedonia, 330 years before Christ, and lasted 
no longer than his life ; for at his death, as there 
was no proper successor left, his generals divi- 
deil the empire amongst them.. 

^* Why was Alexander called the Great ? 

A^ Not on account of his virtues, but on ac> 
count of the ravages which he spread over every 
■Ration that would not submit to him ; the sue- 
xess of his ambition commanded terror, as- 
tonishment, and admiration ; for mankind are too 
3pt tiL> venerate irresisiable power. In twelve^ 



ARTS AND SCffiNd'ES* M 

years he subdued all the nations fron\ the Adri- 
atic sea, to the river Ganges in India. 

^. What was the fourth monarchy ? 

A. The Roman^ founded by Romulus, B. C. 
753, which ended with the expulsion of the Tar- 
quins for their tyranny B. C. 538 ; whenceforth 
Rome flourrshed until it became, under Augus- 
tus Csesajr, mistress of the whole earth, excepting 
China, and those countries *that were either 
unknown, or inhabited by savage nations, or too 
inconsiderable to attract regard. 

^. Did not the Roman government undergo 
many changes ? 

A. Yes ; the first slate of Rome was oligar- 
chical, and then regal, under twelve successive 
kings ; the next was consular, under a series of 
consuls, annually appointed, for the space of 
four hundred and seventy years. 

^. What followed this consular period ? 

A. There were many cruel struggles of the 
people against the patricians who oppressed 
and robbed them : and at length a conspiracy 
was formed between Julius Caesar, Pompey, and 
Crassus, to usurp the power into their own 
hands; but Caesar aspiring to the sovereignty 
alone, after a long war with Pompey, whom he 
defeated^ gained to himself the empire ; but 
he was put to death for usurpation by a band of 
Roman citizens who devoted their lives to the 
freedom of their country. 

^ Was Rome liberated ? 

A. No, never after ; for Octavlus, a relative q£ 
Julius Caesar, with Antony and Lepidus, formed 
another triumvirate, and having the soldiery 
at command, defeated, put to death, or banished 
all that was virtuovis at Rome ; and at length 
Octavius assumedimperial power with the name 



0^ i^ EPITOME or thk 

of Augustus Caesar, and the Roman libertiejsp 
perished 27 years before Christ. 

^ Did the empire remain ? 

A. Until the year 476, of our era, when 
AugustuKis, the last emperor, was defeated by 
Odoacer; and from that period the Roman 
empire became the prey of the Goths, Lom- 
bards, and Franks, until the establishment of 
the various petty governments, some of which 
yet exist, and others are undergoing changes ; 
which belong to the history of modem Europe. 

^ What effects followed the inroads of the 
barbarians ? 

A. The temporary destruction of the fine arts 
and the suspension of literature, which occasion- 
ed the intervening period from thence to the 
tenth century to be called the dark age, 

^ What was the effect upon nations? 

A, Petty governments w^ere formed in Italy, 
and other parts of Europe, but the whole power 
was vested in some particular families, whose 
chiefs assumed the titles of counts, marquises, 
dukes, princes, kings, or emperors. 

^. Which was the most distinguished of 
these nations ? 

A. That of the Franks. ...from whom and the 
Gauls have sprung the modern French. 



ARTS AND SCIENCJQS* ^ 



CLASS I\....LESSON IV- 

^ WHAT families first assumed the crown 
of France ? 

A. After the declension of the Roman em- 
pire, the Franks broke in upon the Gauls, and 
conquered the country: their first king was 
Pharamond^ A. D. 419: of this family were 
twenty-one kings ; the second race began under 
Pepin^ A. D. 751. This line was followed 
by the Capetian race, so called from Hugh 
Capet, A. D. 988. This family was succeeded 
by the house of Valo'is^ in the person of Philip 
VI. A. D* 1328. Upon the extinction of this 
fcmily the succession fell upon that of Bourbon, 
A. D. 1589; which terminated with Louis 
XVL in 1793; when a revolution took place 
that is not yet closed ; but which has converted 
France into an empire, under a new dynasty 
established in 1804. 

^ What races of kings have succeeded to 
the Spanish crown ? 

A. After the expulsion of the Romans, Spain 
had been governed by five families: the first 
from the Goths ; the second, after the invasion 
of the Moors of Africa, from Don Pelagio ; 
the third from Don Sancho^Yva^ of Navarre ; the 
fourth from che house of Austria, by the mar- 
ri:^ge of Joanna^ daughter and heiress of Fer- 
dinand, sirnamed the Catholic^ to Philip, arch- 
duke of Austria, eldest son of the emperor 
Maximilian ; and the fifth from the house of 
Anjou, grandson to Louis the XIV. whose de- 
scendants also reigned in Spain and the two Si- 
cilies : until they were deposed by the emperor 
of the French in 18Q6, 



$i AIS EPITOME or THE 

^ Of what family is the emperor 'of Austria ? 

A. Descended from Rodolph I. Count of 
Hapsburg and Landgrave of Alsace, who was 
the first of his family that obtained the empire 
©f Germany. He was elected, A. D. 1273. 

^ Of w^hat family is the emperor of Turkey ? 

A. Of the Ottoman family, so called from 
the warlike Sultan Othman or Osman^ who, A. 
D. 1300, carried his conquests to a prodigious 
extent. 

^. Who were the kings of Portugal ? 

-4. Portugal became a kingdom about the 
middle of the twelfth century. Count Henry 
receiving some* territories bordering upon it 
from Alonzo king of Leon, as a marriage 
dowry with his daughter, he expelled tlie Sara- 
cens, and his son Alonzo conquered Lisbon^ 
and assumed the title of king of Portugal in 
1146. In 1580 Philip I), of Spain seized upon 
this country ; but in 1640 the duke of Braganza 
recovered it, and in his family it remained inde- 
pendent of Spain until the family was obliged to 
emigrate to Brazil by the French in 1806. 

^ How is Holland governed ? 

A. Formerly it was governed by a stadtholder 
©r captain general, who w^as expelled in 1795; 
it was afterwards erected into a monarchy under 
a brother of the French emperor, but it was, in 
1810, annexed to and incorporated with France 
'and divided into departments conformable to 
^he French system. 

^. What is the present government of Italy? 

A* It v/as divided into little principalities, and 

dukedoms, and the government of the Pope, but it 

has been constituted a kingdom attached to the 

French empire, and governed by a vlce-roy^ 



The pope no longer reigns as a temporal prince, 
and the son of the French emperor, upon his 
birth, 20th March, 1811, was styled king of 
Rome. 

^ What is the established government iia 
England? 

A> It is called an hereditary monarchy, and 
females are capable of succession. The title of 
the present chief of the government is King of the 
United Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. 

^ How was England anciently governed ? 

A. England was first under the ^riifc'TZ.y; 2dly, 
made tributary to the Romans^under Julius Cae- 
sar ; 3dly, under the Saxons ; ^thly, under the 
£)anes ; and 5thly, under the Normans ; whose 
conquest of that island, by William of Norman- 
dy, is the epoch from whence the historians of 
that country principally compute. 

^. Name the succession of the English mo- 
narchs from the conquest, with the several fami- 
lies. 

J. 1st. Four Norman kings....!^ William of 
Normandy; 2. William Rufus, his second son ; 
3. Henry I. a younger brother ; 4. Stephen, a 
younger son of Henry^s first sister. 

2d. Fourteen kings of the family of Planta- 
genet, who governed 331 years..^.l, Henry II. ; 
S, Richard I. ; 3, John ; 4, Henry III. ; 5, 
Edward I. ; 6, Edward II. ; 7, Edward III. ; 
8, Richard II. ; 9, Henry IV. ; 10, Henry V. ; 
11, Henry VI. ; 12, Edward IV. ; 13, Edward 
V. ; 14, Richard IIL 

3d. Five of the house of Tudor, who sat 
upon the throne 118 years. »..l, Henry VII. ; 2> 
Henry VIII. f 3, Edward VI. ; 4, Mary; 5, 
Elizabeth* 



96 AN EPITOME OP THE 

4th. Six of the house of Stuart : 1, James I. ; 
2, Charles I. ; 3, Charles II. ; 4, James II, ; 5, 
jVIary II. queen of William III. ; 6, Anne. 

5th. One Englishman under the name of Pro- 
tector, Oliver CronnvelL 

6th. One king a Dutchman. ...William III. 

7th. Three from Brunswick, in Gernlany, 
which family succeeded upon the death of Anne : 
i, George I. ; 2, George II. ; 3, George III. 

^ Was England always governed as a mon- 
archy ? 

A. The name of monarchy has been always 
used, but the government has really been a go- 
vernment of several and not of one^ as the word 
monarchy implies. 

^. Has there not been a republic in Eng- 
land? 

A. After Charles I. had been beheaded for 
his tyranny, England was called a common- 
wealth ; but the people were too ignorant, and 
their leaders too wicked to maintain a free com-f 
monwealth : Oliver Cromwell, who was called 
protector^ was the most arbitrary of all their 
monarchs ; and contributed more to their poli- 
tical power and grandeur, than all the kings 
who have succeeded him. 

^. How are the Swfss now governed? 

A, The old form of the Swiss confederation 
is abolished, and a tiew confederation formed, 
and the number of territories or states aug- 
mented. 

^. Are there no other governments in Eu- 
rope ? 

A* I only noticed those comprehended within 
the ancient Roman Empire. There are others ; 
as Sweden, Denmark, Russia, and Prussia ; 
these shall be noticed in the geographical lessons. 



ARTS ANB SGIEXGES. 97 

AN EPITOME 

OF THE 

ARTS A^^D SCIEXCES. 



CLASS V-...LESSON L 

OF GEOGRAPHY. 

'^. WHAT Is geography ? 

A* Geography is the science which describes 
the extent and subdivisions of the surface of the 
earth, the parts of which are land and water. 

^. Explain in what the parts consist? 

A. The land consists of continents, island^, 
peninsulas, and isthmuses ; and the water of 
oceans, seas, gulfs, straits, rivers, and lakes. 

There are properly only two continents ; for 
Europe, Asia, and Africa, are separated but by 
geographical lines ; and the other consists of 
North and South America, which are connected 
by the narrow isthmus of Darien. 

An island is a portion of land surrounded by 
water, such as Cuba, Bermuda, Long Island, 
Great Britain, Ireland, Jamaica, and Borneo. 

A peninsula is a tract of land almost sur- 
rounded with water, as East Florida, Malacca 
in Asia, and the Morea in Greece. 

An isthmus is a neck of land which joins a 
peninsula to a continent, or two continents toge* 
ther, as the isthmus of Suez in Egypt, which 
joins Africa to Asia, and the isthmus of Panama 
or Darien, which joins North to South America. 

There are four oceans ; the Pacific Ocean, the 
Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and the 
Northern Ocean. * 



98 AK EPITOME or THE 

A sea is a smaller collection of water, as the 
Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. 

A gulf or bay is an arm of the sea, which runs a 
considerable way into land, as the gulf of Mex- 
ico, the gulf of Guinea, and the bay of Biscay, 

A strait is a narrow part of the sea, forming a 
passage from one sea to another ; as the strait of 
Gibraltar, the strait of Magellan in South Ameri- 
ca, and the straits of Babelmandel in the Red Sea. 

A cape or promontory is a point of land jutting 
out of the sea ; as Cape Henlopen^ Cape Como- 
rin, the Cape of Good Hope, and Cape Horn. 

^. What of the earth in general ? 

A. The earth is a large globe, the diameter of 
w^hich is nearly eight thousand miles (7935|) and 
its surface contains nearly two hundred millions 
of square miles, (199,512,595) of which near 
three fifdis ai e covered with water* 

The land occupied by upwards of a thousand 
millions of human beings, is divided into four 
great nominal parts, sometimes called quarters ; 
Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. 

^. What proportion does the land bear to 
the water in the different parts of the globe ? 

A. The following is the estimated amount of 
square miles to each section of the earth: 

America, - - - 14,110 874 

Asia, - • • . - 10768,823 

Africa, .... 9,654,807 

Kurope, . - • . 4,456,065 

38.990,569 
Se,as,lakes^ and lands unktiown, 160,522 026 

Total surface of the globe, 199,5 12,595 

The inhabitants amount to about ICCO miilionff 
persons. 



I 



ARTS AN0 SCIENCES. 99 

OF EUrwOPE. 

^ As Europe is the most celebrated, give 
some account of that quarter of the world? 

A, Europe, though the smallest of the grand 
divisions or quarters of the world, is inhabited 
by the most active and intelligent race of people. 
It comprehends numerous nations, which are 
thus named at present. .••Lapland, Norway, Swe- 
den, Russia, Denmark, Saxony Prussia, Bava* 
ria, the confederation of the Rhine, Austria, 
Turkey, France, Switzerland, Italy, Portugal, 
Spain, and Great Britain and Ireland^ 

^. What is its extent ? 

A. From N. E. to S. W, about 3000 miles ; 
its breadth, East and West, about 2500 miles ; 
and is situated between 35 and 71 degrees, north 
latitude. 

^. What In the natural history of those coun- 
tries is remarkable ? 

A. The three grand inland seas; whicharethe 
Mediterranean, the Baltic, and the White sea. 

Its principal islands are Great Britain, Ireland, 
Iceland, Zealand, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and 
Candia. 

Its principal rivers are the Wolga,the Danube, 

e Neiper, the Rhine, the Rhone and the Elbe. 

Its most elevated mountains are : the Alps, 
which separate Italy from Germany, Switzerland, 
and France. The Pyrennees,betweenTrance and 
Spain. The Defrafeld mountains, betw^een Nor- 
way and Sweden. The Carpathian mountains, 
which bound Hungary to the north and east. 

The principal capes in Europe are, the North 
Cape, the Naze, the Land's End, Cape la 
Hogue, Cape Clear, the Lizard, Care Fiills- 
terre, St. Vincent, and Metapan. 

^% What is Lapland ? 



100 AN EPITOME OF ^HIT 

A. Lapland is divided into Danish or North 
Lapland ; and Russian or East Lapland ; and is 
principally covei-ed with immense forests, chiefly 
of fir, and with pastures abounding with reindeer. 

In some parts of Lapland (near the north pole) 
the sun is absent for about seven weeks ; but 
from ten in the forenoon, till between one and 
two in the afternoon, the twilight is sufficient 
for persons to read without a candle ; the stars 
are visible at noon, and the moon shines without 
intermission* In the summer, on the contrary^ 
the sun never sets for seven weeks together. 

^. Infoim me concerning Norway. 

A Norw^ay is dependent upon Denmark ; and 
divided into four general governments, viz. Ag- 
gerhuys, Bergen, Drontheim, and Wardhuys ; 
the chief town of Norway is Bergen. Norway 
is the most mountainous country in the world ; 
the inhabitants have neither cornfields nor 
gardens, but subsist chiefly by hunting and fishing. 

The chief wealth of Norway lies in its fir tim* 
brr, with which foreign nations are supplied. 
It possesses quarries of excellent marble and 
mines of various metals. 

^. Is there not a celebrated whirlpool on the 
.oast of Norway ? 

A. Yes ; the vortex called the Maelstroom, 
which is heard at a great distance, and forms a 
v.hirlpool of a vast depth and extent, and so 
violent, that if a ship come near it, it is drawn in. 
and shattered to pieces. 

§1. Describe Denmark to me ? 

Ai Denmark proper is a comparatively smalt 
country, containing only the peninsula of Jutland^ 
and the islands of Zealand, Funen, &c. at the 
entrance of the Baltic ; Copenhagen, the capital 
city, is in the island of Zealand ; and at Elsinore 
all foreign ships that trade to the Baltic pay toli. 



ARTS AJSD SCIENCES. 101 

^ What is remarkable beside in Denmark ? 

A. Iceland, subject to Denmark, abounds in 
sulphur, subterranean fires, and volcanoes ; 
mount Hecla is a volcano one mile high, and its 
sides are always covered with snow. 

Greenland and the Ferro islands are subject 
to Denmark. 

A volcanic island recently rose to the south 
of Iceland, but it quickly disappeared again. 

Extent of Denmark 170,000 square m.iles. 
Population 2,150,000 ; 12 to a square mile. 

^. Give some account of Sweden ? 

A. Sweden was divided into Sweden proper^ 
Gothland, Finland, Swedish Lapland, and the 
Swedish islands ; the capital is Stockholm, which 
is built on seven rocky islands, and united by 
bridges ; the other principal towns are Upsal, 
famous for its university : Gothenburg, in Goth- 
land ; Tornea, in Lapland ; and Abo, in Fin« 
land. But in the late war with Russia it has 
lost three fourths of Finland. 

The chief wealth of Sweden arises from its min^s 
of silver, copptir, lead, and iron ; w^hich are so very- 
spacious as to form a kind of subterraneous world. 

The country of Sweden is mountainous, and 
contains lakes of great extent, and rivers nume- 
rous and navigable, issuing principally from the 
Norwegian mountains. 

^. What is there remarkable in Sweden ? 

A. In the Baltic Sea there are no tides, though 
there is a current constantly running from it into 
the Northern Ocean. The islands about the 
Baltic amount to several thousand, most of them 
inhabited and abounding with natural curiosities, 
and singular and sublime scenery. 

Extent 209,000 square miles ; population 
3,000,000 ; persons to a square mile 14. 

.% What of the Russian empire ? 
i2 , 



102 A'S EPITOME OF THE 

A. It is comparatively modern ; it owes itc 
greatness and civilization to Peter properly called 
the great, not on account of his murders of man- 
kind, for he engaged in no offensive wars, but 
for being the benefactor of humanity and intro- 
ducing civilization among saviiges. 

^. How long has this empire existed ? 

A. It w^as little better known than Tarta.ry at 
the close of the seventeenth century ;* Peter 
died in the beginning of the 18th century, 
1/25. His successor Katharine I. was the first em- 
press, she died two years after Peter the Great. 

^. What is the empire as to extent ? 

'A^ The largest in the w^orld ; comprehending 
the northern parts of Europe and Asia ; but a 
small part of its inhabitants only are civilized. 
The principal cities are Moscow the ancient 
capital, and Petersburg the modern capital ; 
beside Archangel, on the White Sea ; Cherson 
on the Euxine ; Astrachan on the Caspian, and 
Tobolsk capital of Siberia, 

It is mostly a level country: from Petersburg 
to Pckin in China, is not obstructed by a single 
hill : the principal lakes are Ladoga and Onega ; 
the rivers, the Wolga 3000 miles in its course 
fulls into the Caspian, by more than 70 mouths ; 
thb Don, the Neiper, the Neister. The climate 
is severe in «ome parts. The inland navigation 
is extensive ; the trade in tipber, flax, hemp, 
coppe2\ and fish, is very great. ' 

The extent of Russia, before the partitions of 
Poland in 1772, 1793, and 1796, v/as 4,660,000 
<=nuare miles. Population 25,000^000 ; 5 to a 
square mile. 

By the partition of Poland a territory had 
been added containing 4,000,000 of people; but 
the French revolution has produced some 
changes, which as they may chan-g« again, it i^^ 
not nccessaj'V now to notyice* 



AltTS AND SCIJ&^^CES. 103 



CLASS T....LESSON IL 

OF EUROPE. 

•^x: WHAT is the history of Prussia ? 

A* This is a kingdom created in the begin- 
ning of the 18th century f it was formerly sub- 
ject to the Teutonic knights, who held it as a 
fief of Poland ; from its dependarxe on Folai-dit 
was released in 1657, and in 1701, constituted 
iij to a kingdom. In the year 1719, soon after 
it was erected into a kingdom, it obtained, by 
the religious persecutions in France, an acces- 
sion of thirty thousand emigrants, who built 11 
tovv^ns, 400 villages, 50 churches, and founded 
1000 schools. The original Prussia, called 
Ducal Prussia, was small, but by the conquest of 
Silesia from Austria, in the seven years vv^ar^ 
and the partition of Poland in 1772, 1793, and 
in 1796, it wa;s made an extensive country. 

It was divided into Royal Prussia, Ducal Prus- 
sia, and the Duchy of Brandenberg, part of 
Magdeburg, and KaLberstadt. Before the first 
partition of Poland, Prussia contained about 
5,000,000 of people ; by the partition of 1772, 
it obtained an addition of about 800,000 ; and 
by the second in 1793, about 1 ,600,000 ; in 1796, 
about 2,000,000. 

The extent of Prussiabefore the acquisitions 
in Poland, was about 56,000 square miles ; 
from Poland about 40,000 were obtained^ 
making in the whole, about 96,000 ; the whole 
population about 9,300,000; or about 96 to a 
square mile* 

But by the war against France in 1806, Prus- 
sia lost Warsaw, and all the partitioned part of 
Poland, beside other territories, reducing its pQ- 
pulation to about 5,0005000. 



101k Air. EPITOME or THE 

The capital Is Berlin ; but there are also Kori- 
ingsburg, Thorn, Elbhig, Glatz in Silesia. 

The chief rivers are the Vistula, Neimen, 
Pregel, and Namel. 

^. Is not the German empire very extensive? 

A. Before the war of the French revolution 
in 1792, its extent was 197,000 square miles, 
and contained 25,000,000 of inhabitants, beside 
the hereditary dominions of the house of Aus- 
tria, part of w^hich, the Netherlands, have been 
conquered and incorporated with France.— 
Germany is divided into a number of states, 
among which are comprehended several inde- 
pendent states, such as Prussia, Bavaria, Saxo- 
ny, Wirtemberg, Westphalia, &c. Its consti- 
tution or frame of government known by the 
name of the Germanic body, a kind of federal 
government, was overturned after the battle of 
Austerlitz in 1805, and has been superceded by 
what is called the Rhenish confederation, of 
v/hich we shall take some notice. 

Germany contained nine great circles, viz. 
Austria, Bavaria, Suabia^ Franconia, Upper 
Saxon};^, Lower Saxony, Westphalia, Lov/er 
Rhine, and Upper Rhine ; but these circles no 
longer exist, and the emperor is no longer em- 
peror of Germany but of Austria. 

Tlie chief city of the empire is Vienna, the 
residence of the emperor; the other large 
cities are very numerous, as Dresden in Saxony; 
Munich in Bavaria ; Manheim, Wirtemberg, 
Constance, Hanover, Frankfort, Leipsic, and 
others. 

The principal rivers are the Danube^ the 
Rhine, which divides Germany from France, 
the Maine, the Necker, the Inn, the Dravc^ 
the Elbe. Population 108 tp a square mile- 



ARTS AND SCIEA^CBS. 105 

^ What are the Austrian dominicms ? 

A, They are the hereditary dominions of the 
i-eigning family, comprehending Austria proper, 
Bohemia, Hungary, Styria, and part of Poland. 
Austria gained four millions of people by the 
partition of Poland, and about 50,000 square 
miles of territory ; but part of this has been 
since ceded to Russia. 

The pT;incipal towns in the Austrian domi- 
nions beside Vienna, are Prague, Presburg, 
Buda, and Cracow. 

The principal mountains are the Carpathian, 
the Alps, (of which the Bremmcr is one mile 
high,) and the mountains of Styria. 

^ Was not the emperor ol Germany for- 
merly king of Spain ? 

A. The emperor Charles V. was monarch of 
Spain also, biat it was separated from the Ger- 
man crown under his son Philip II. 

^ You mentioned the Rhenish confederacy, 
what is that ? 

A. After the Battle of Austerlitz, a treaty was 
formed at Presburg, the 26th December 1805, 
by which the emperor of Germany relinquished 
that tide, and assumed that of emperor of Aus- 
tria, and acknowledged the French emperor as 
king of Italy. Fourteen of the princes as- 
sembled at the Diet of the empire, on the list of 
August 1806, declared their absolute, and per- 
petual separation form the German body, and 
their determination to form a new confederation 
on the banks of the Rhine. 

^. And how did they proceed ? 

A. They assembled at Frankfort on the 
Maine, and formed a constitution ; by which 
tbey provided for mutual defence, regulated 



106 AN EriTOME or THE 

their contingents of force, and claimed the em- 
peror of the Frettch as their protector. 

^. What princes were they ? 

A. Those who met, formed themselves into 
two colleges ; one called the college of kings, 
and were composed of 1, the king of Bavaria > 

2, the king of Wirtemberg ; 3, grand duke of 
Baden; 4, grand duke of Berg ; 5,^ grand duke of 
Hesse Darmstadt ; 6, the prince primate, pre- 
sident of this college. Of the college of princes, 
the first was the duke of Nassau, who was pre* 
sident of the college ; 2, prince of HohenzoUem ; 

3, prince of Salm ; 4, prince of Yssemberg ; 5, 
prince of Lichtenstein ; 6, prince de Leyen. 

^. These make but twelve, beside the prince 
primate ? 

j4. There are several of these princes who 
have two houses, with princes at the head of 
each \ such as Nassau, of which there are two^ 
Hesse two, and Salm two. 

^. Do these comprize the whole ? 

A* No.. ..soon after their formation, there 
were added, the grand duke of Wurtzberg, the 
king of Saxony, and the five branches of that 
house, the king of Westphalia, three branches of 
Anhalt, two branches of Schwartzenberg, the 
prince of Waldeck, prince of Reuss, prince de 
Lippe. The three Hanseatic cities also joined; 
but they were in December 1810, incorporated 
with France; Prussia joined in 1811. The po- 
pulation of these confederates amounted to near" 
20,000,000 of persons. 



AKTS A^'^D SCIENCES, 10^ 



CLASS V..-.LESSON III. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

^. What is the extent and population of 
Spain ? 

A. Its extent is 150,263 square miles ; popu- 
lation about 10,000,000, about 70 to a square 
mile. It is divided into fourteen districts or 
provinces; six north, Call ici a, Asturia, Biscay, 
Navarre, Arragon, and Catalonia ; five middle, 
Leon, Estramadura, Castile Old and New, and 
Valencia ; three south, Andalusia, Granada^ 
and Murcia* 

Its capital is Madrid; chief towns Cadiz, 
Seville, Barcelona, Valencia, and Corunna.— • 
The principal rivers, the Ebro, Tagus, and 
Douro* On a promontory in the south of 
Spain stands Gibraltar. The chief islands of 
Spain are Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica^ all in 
the Mediterranean sea. 

^ Has not Spain vast foreign possessions? 

A. She had in South America, and some 
islands in the great Indian Archipelago, which 
are described under the general account of 
Asia and South America; but in 1810 the 
South Americans asserted their independence. 

^. Have not the Portuguese acquired grea^ 
celebrity in history ? 

A. The Portuguese were among the earliest 
and most celebrated navigators of modern Eu- 
rope ; they were the first who entered upon the 
spirit of discovery, and by doubling the Cape of 
Good Hope, led to the discovery of America* 

^. What was the cause of her decline i 



lOS AK EPITOME OB T*H£ 

A. The same cause that has enervated and 
destroyed the gallantry and enterprize of the 
Spaniards ; the acquisition of excessive riches. 
The Portuguese at one period, had the exclusive 
commerce of all Asia, in which they were su- 
perceded by the Dutch, who are now superceded 
by the English. 

^ What is the extent of Portugal ? 

A, It lies on the coast of the Atlantic, to the 
south of Spain, is only 27,000 square miles in 
extent, and its population not quite 2,000,000 ; 
and it never has amounted to 3,000,000. Its 
population per square mile is about 62. 

^. Relate the circumstances of Turkey in 
Europe ? 

A. It includes ancient Greece, and other coun- 
tries, formerly esteemed the finest in the world, 
but now the most wretched* Its northern pro- 
vinces were Moldavia, Bessarabia, Wallachia, 
Servia, Bosnia : the middle, Bulgaria, Roma- 
nia, Macedonia, Albania, and Epirus : the 
south, called Greece, contains Thessaly, Achaia, 
and the Morea. 

The metropolis is Constantinople, on the sea 

©f Mormora, at the entrance of the Euxine 

Adrianople is the second city ; and the principal 
rivers are the Danube, Save, and Neister. The 
chief mountains are the classic Pindus, and 
Olympus, which separate Thessaly from Epirus ; 
Parnassus, Athos, and Hermus. The islands 
are numerous, as Rhodes, Gandia, Cephalonia, 
^c. 



AfiTS AND gCIENGBS. 



109 



CLASS V.-.LESSON IT. 

OF EUROPE. 

^ WHAT is the situation of France ? 

A. Before the revolution which commenced 
in 1799, France was divided into 18 provinces, 
besides 4 provinces in the Netherlands, contain- 
ing about 131,095 square miles, and 25,000,000 
of inhabitants. Upon the conquest of Pied- 
mont, it was divided into 108 departments. By 
an imperial decree of I8ip, the territory of Hol- 
land was united to the French empire, together 
wath the coast of the North sea, from Holland to 
the Elbe, which was dividedon the 1st of January 
1811, into nine departments, according to the 
order annexed ; which exhibits the old and the 
new names of the countries. 



DEPARTMENTS. 



1. Lower Alps 

2i Mouths of the Rhone 

3. Var 

4. Vaucluse 

5. Upper Alps 
Drome . 
Isere 
Doubs 
Jura 

Upper Soane 
Lower Rhine 
Upper Rhine 

13. Meurthe 

14. Meuse 
Moselle 
Vosges 
Ardennes 
Aubft 

19. Marne 

20. Upper Marne 



6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 



15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 



ANCIENT PRO- 
VINCES, 



CHIEF 

TOWNS. 



> 4 Provence 

3 Dauphinc 

' 3 Franche- 
Compte 

2 Alsace 
. 4 Lorraine 

' 4 Champagne 



Toulon 
Avignon 

Grenoble 

Besancou 

Strasburg- 

Metz 
Troyes 



110 



AN EPITOME OF THE 



DEPARTMENTS. 



21. North 

22. Calais 

23. Aisne 

24. Oise 

25. Seine 

26. Seine and Oise 
, 27. Somme 

28. Seine and Marne 

29. Calvados 

30. Eure 

31. Manche 
32 Orne 

33. Eower Seine 

34. North Coast 
25. Finislerre 

36. llle and Vilaine 

37. Lower Loire 

38. Morbihan 

39. Indre and Loire 

40. Mayenne 

41. Mayenne and Loire 

42. Sarthe 

43. Deux Se^Tes 
44 Vendee 

45. Vienne 

46- Eure and Loire 

47 Loire and Cher 

48. Loiret 

49. Indre 

50. Cher 

51. Nievre 

52. Ain 

53. Cole d*Or 

54. Yonne 

^ 55, Soane and Loire 

56. Loire 

57. Rhone 

58. AUicr 

59. Correse 

60. Creuse 

61. Upper Vienne 

62. Charente 



ANCIENT PRO- 
VINCES. ^ 



CHIEF 
TOWNS. 



2 Flanders 



>>6 Isle of France 



5 Normandy 
and Perche 



5 Bretagne 



4 Upper and 
Lower Maine 



3 Poitou 



3 Orleanois 

2 Berry 

1 Nivernois 

Burg-ogne, 

4 Vah*oniey, 
Aunerois, kc 

2 Lyonnois, 
Fores, &c. 

1 Bourbonnuis 

rt Limousin, 
^ Marche, &c. 

1 Ang^umois 



Douay 



Paris 

Ami<jns 

Versailles 



Caen 

Rouen 



Nantes 
Vannes 



Tours 

Niort 
Poitiers 

Orleans 
Blois 

Bourges 
Nevers 

Dijon 
Macon 

Lyons 
Moulin s 

Limoges 

Angouie/lie 



11 



AltTS AND SCIENCES. 



Ill 



DEPARTMENTS. 



63. Lower Charente 

64. Dordogne 

65. Gironde 
Landes 

Lot and Garonne 
Gers 
Lot 

Aveyron 

Lower P}Tennees 
Upper Pyrennees 
Arrieg-e 

Eastern Pyrennees 
Ardeche 
Aude 
Gard 

78. Upper Garonne 

79. Herault 

80. Lozere 

81. Tarn 

82. Tarne and Garonne. 
Cantal 
Upper Loire 
Puy de Dome 
• Corsica 
Mont Blanc 
Maritime Alps 
Leman 
Dyle 
E scant 
Forets 
Gemmape 
Lj's 

Lower Meiise 
Deux Nethes 
Oiirthe 

Sambre and Me use 
Roer 
Sarre 
Rhine and Moselle 

102. Mont Tonnere 
1,03. Simplon 



66. 
67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 
76. 
77. 



S3. 

84. 

%5- 

86. 

87. 

88. 

89. 

90. 

91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 

99. 
100. 
lOL 



ANCIENT PRO' 

VINCES. 



1 Annis 
1 Perigord 

' Bourdelois, 
> 4 Armagnac, 
I &c. 

T. Qiiercy 
1 Rouergne 
1 Beam 
1 Bigorre 
1 Causerans 
1 Rousillon 



Languedoc, 
K 8 Cononingen, 
&c. 



. Vela 



X\V 



vergne, &.€. 

1 Corsica 
^ Savoy, Nice, 
and Geneva 



>9 



Hainault 
Flanders 
Brabant 
Leige 



CHIEF 
I OWNS. 



4 Alsace, &c. 
VaLais 



Saintes 
Perigeux 

Bordeaux 

Cahors 

Rhodez 

Pan 

Tarbe 

Tarascoh 

Perplgnan 



Toulpuse 
Montpelier 

Nismes 



Ciermont.. 

Ajaccio 

Bastia 

Charaberry 

Geneva 



Brussels 

Leige 

Namur 



Aix-la-Cha- 

pelle 
Treves 
Coblentz 
Mayence 

Slon 



i±2 



A:S EPITOME; OF THE 



DEPARTMENTS. 



ANCTE>fT PRO- 
VINCES, 



104. Ain 

105. Appenriines 

106. Doir 
107- Genoa 
108 Mareng"o 
409. Moiitenotte 

no. Po 

llj. Scsla 

112. Stiira 

113. Taro 

114. Arno 

115. Mediterranea^i 
lid. Umbrone 

117. Campania 

118, Thrusyrr.ene 
Ti9. Zuyderzee 
120. Mouths of the Meuse 
151. Upper Yssel 
15X\ Mouths of the Yssel 
12.J. Frise 

124. West Ems 

125. East Ems ij 

1 26. Upper Ems. 

127. Moutlis of the Weser 

128. Mouths of the Elbe ^ 

The colonial departments were 13, but France 
has not now a single possession out of Europe.... 
The following was their arrangement : 



Piedmont 
. Genoa 
Piedmont 
Genoa 
Piedmont 
Savona 
Piedmont 
Piedmont 
Piedmont 
Parmesan 
Tuscany 
Tuscany 
Tuscany 
Rome 
Do. 



Seven united 
provinces 



CHIEF 
TOWNS. 



Mantua 

Echiavari 

Turin 

Bobbio 

Alexandria 

Ac qui 

Turin 

Verceil 

Conic 

Parma 

Florence 

Livorne 

Sienna 

Rome 



Amster- 
dam 



Embdcii 



Hamburg 



All taken by 
British, 



the 



St. Doming'o 
Guadaloupe - 
Martinique 

Cayenne - - - - 
St. Lucie and Tobago - 
Grenada - - - 
Isle of France 
Bourbon - - - 
Continental India, Pon-"^ 

di cherry, Mahe, and > 

Chandemag-ore, j J 

^ Beside thecity of Paris, which is the capital, 
which are the most considerable cities fn France f 



5 

1 
1 

1 
1 
1 
1 



Departments 



ARTS AND SCIEXCE3. 413 

A\ Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, Lisle, Rome, 
Milan, Amsterdam, Hamburg, Brussels, Flo- 
rence. 

The principal rivers in France are the Rhone, 
Garonne, Seine, Sambre,. Meuse, Moselle, and 
the Rhine, which is on the frontier next to Ger- 
many, Switzerland, and Batavia. 

§ln What beside is interesting in France ? 

A. The public works, such as canals and har- 
bors, are worthy of admiration ; the canal of 
Languedoc is 180 miles long, and admits a com- 
plete navigation from the Mediterranean to the 
Atlantic^ Several great canals have been con- 
structed lately. 

^. What is the state of Switzerland ? 

A. It has assumed its ancient classic name of 
Helvetia, and preserves a confederated form of 
government, and consists of the 13 old states of 
Zurich, Berne, Underwalden, Zug, Basil, Glaris^ 
Soleure, Uri, Schwitz, Appenzel, Lucern, Fri- 
burg, and Schafhausen ; six other new cantons- 
are formed out of the territories whch were for- 
merly in alliance or dependent oti Helvetia with» 
out any rights of interference in the governmento 

^. What districts were dependent ? 

A. Baden, Bremgarten, Mellingen, Rheinth^^ 
Thurgaa, Lugano, Locarno, Mendris, and Mag- 
gia. 

^. Which were the Helvetian allies ? 

A. There were the Grisons, Valais, St. Ga!^ . 
Sargans, Tockenburg, Neufchatel, Mulhausen, 
Ghiavena, Geneva, Bormio, and the Valteline. 

Q. Were there not some others called inde- 
pendent Cantons ? 

A. Yes..*.but they are now either united with 
the Swiss Cantons, or with France or Italy,. 
or under new princes, such as Neufchatel<)j 
Bienne, Gerisau, Engleberg, Raperschweil, HaU^ 



114b A^ EPITOME OF THE 

denstein, Baden, Morat, Granson, Echalen, Or- 
be, Schwartzenberg, Utznach, and Gaster. 

^ You mentioned Geneva, is that an inde« 
pendent state? 

A. No 4 it has been incorporated with France, 
and some of the other districts, as part of the 
Valais had been added to the Italian republic, 
under the treaty of Campo Formio, concluded 
in 1797 : but a department has been formed out 
of the Valais, called the Simplon, by a decree of 
December 1810. 

^ What are the principal cities and towns of 
Helvetia? 

A. Every canton has its peculiar capital, but 
Berne is thelargest, Zurich and Basil rank next* 

Helvetia is a mountainous country, it is divided 
by the Alps from Italy ; Su Gothard in Uri j 
and Mont Blanc on the borders of the French de- 
partment of that name, are the highest in Europj^. 
The principal lakes are Constance, Lemmannear 
Geneva, Lucern, Zurich, and others. The 
Rhine, the Rhone, and the Aar, have their sour- 
ces in this country^ Helvetia contains about 
18,000 square miles, population 2,500,000. 

i<^. Was not the Batavian republic a prodigy 
ol human industry ? 

A. Its banks (called dykes) for keeping out 
the ocean and securing the land ; its canals and 
hidustry, are not to be conceived but by exami- 
nation. Amsterdam is one of the largest cities 
in Europe, is built upon piles drove into the 
earth, in a morass : the canals through the 
country are equally useful and curious. 

The extent of the Batavian territory was 8,500 
*vquare miles, being about the same size as Ne.w 
Hampshire, something larger than Jersey, about 
one fifth of the size of Pennsylvania. The po* 
•pulation 3,500,O00,' abojtit 412 to a square mile. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 



115 



CLASS V.-.LESSON V. 

OF EUROPE. 

^. WHAT is the state of Great Britain ? 

A. Our former connexion with that country, 
and speaking the same language, render our 
acquaintance with its state more familiar than 
with others. Great Britain consists of the coun- 
tries called England, Scotland, and Wales, and 
its government from the beginning of this cen- 
tury is called the United Kingdom of Great Bri- 
tain and Ireland. Wales has for a long time 
ceased to be considered as separate from Eng- 
land, and the name of Scotland is nearly lost in 
that of Great Britain. England contains 4bO 
counties, Wales 12, Scotland 33, and Ireland 32. 

^ Name them separately. 

A. England, taken from north to south,^ con- 
tains.... 



Northumberland 

Durham 

Cumberland 

Westmoreland 

York 

Lancaster 

Chester 

Salop 

Nottingham 

Derby 

Lincoln 

Rutland 

Leicester 

Stafford 



Warwick 

Worcester 

Hereford 

Monmouth 

Gloucester 

Oxford 

Buckingham 

Northampton 

Bedford 

Huntingdon 

Cambridge 

Norfolk 

Suffolk 

Essex 



Hertford 

Middlesex 

Kent 

Surry 

Sussex 

Berks 

Hants 

Wilts 

Dorset 

Somerset 

Devon and. 

Cornwall 



IIG 



AIS EPITOME OF THE 



The principal city of the whole nation is Lon- 
don ; Bristol, Liverpool, Hull, Newcastle, 
Oxford, and Cambridge, other principal cities y 
the two last are its most celebrated universities. 

Its rivers are the Severn, Thames, and Mer- 
sey; none of which are equal to our river Dela- 
ware in extent ; ar^ all of them inferior to ri- 
vers of the third degree in the United States : 
the principal lakes are those of Winandermere, 
but compared with our American lakes they are 
m.ere bathing tubs. 

Wales, a mountainous country contains the. 
following counties,... 



Flint 
Denbigh 
Montgomery 
Anglesey 



Caernarvon 
Merioneth 
Radnor 
Brecknock 



Glamorgan 
Pembroke 
Cardigan 
Caermarthen 12 



Scotland, also a mountainous country, has 
the following counties. ».. 

Edinburg Dumbarton Nairne and 

Haddington Bute aid Cromartie 

Merse Caithness Fife 

Roxburgh Renfrew Forfar 

Selkirk Perth Bamff 

Peebles Stirling Sutherland 

Lancrk Linlithgow Clacmannon 

Dumfries Argyle Kinross 

Wigtoun Kincardin -. Ross 

Kirkcudbright Aberdeen El : in 

Ayre Inverness Orkney 33 

The principal city is Edinburg, and Glasgow- 
and Aberdeen are two universities. The prin- 
cipal rivers the Firth, Tay, and Tw^ed, but they 
are not much larger than many of our Ameri- 
can creeks ; thejr lakes, like those of England^ 
are small, as Loch Lomond and Loch Ness* 



4.KTS AlSrP MJIE3rCES'. 



Hi 



Carlow 


Roscommon 


2. Down 


Mayo 


Armagh 


Sligo 


Monaghan 


Galway 


Cavan 


Clare 


Antrim 


4. Cork 


Derry 


Kerry 


Tyrone 


Limerick 


Fermanagh 


Tipperary 


S. Donnegal 


Waterford 33 


Leitrim 





Ireland is a separate island west of England 
and Scotland ; it is divided into four provinces, 
Leinster, Ulster, Connaught, and Munster ; the 
lounties in each are 

1. Dublin 
Louth 
Wicklow 
Wexford 
Longford 
East Meath 
West Meath 
King's 
Queen's 
Kilkenny 
Kildare 

The principal rivers are not larger than in the 
neighboring island, excepting the Shannon, 
which is the largest in the two islands, the other 
rivers are the Liffey, Lee, Blackwater, Suir, 
Nore, and Barrow. Ireland has several small 
lakes also. 

Dublin is the capital of Ireland, the other 
chief cities are Cork, Waterford, Limerick, 
Belfast, Derry, Galway. 

^. Are there not some islands under that go« 
vernment ? 

A. Yes ; the isle of Wight forms part of 
Hampshire ; Jersey and Guernsey are on the 
French coast of the channel ; the isle of Man 
in the Irish sea ; the Scilly islands are off the 
promontory of Cornwall ; the Shetlands, Ork- 
neys, and Hebrides, are off the coast of Scot- 
land. 

^. What is that government called the king- 
dom of Italy ? 



118 AN EPITOME or THE 

A. This country is at present united with the 
French empire* This country formerly com- 
posed the duchy of Milan, or the ancient Cis- 
Alpine GauL 

^ How is Italy, so celebrated, divided ? 

A. Italy has been indeed celebrated as the 
garden of Europe, and the seat of arts, and 
once mistress of the world. 

The Roman state or territory now forms a part 
of the French empire : the kingdom of the two 
Sicilies, or Naples, is a kingdom also connected 
with France. 

The old dynasty of the Bourbons, however, 
retain their court at Palermo, in Sicily. ^ 

Rome is the principal city of Italy ; Tuscany, 
but which assumed its ancient name of Etruria, 
is also a part of the French empire ; Milan is 
the capital of ancient Lomhardy apd of the pre- 
sent Italian kingdom. 

The Appenine mountains run through the 
whole extent of Italy ; Vesuvius has been cele- 
brated as a volcanic, mountain ; as has Etna in 
the island of Sicily, which is separated from the 
S. W. Dart of Naples by the streights of Messina 
— chief towns in Sicily, Palermo and Syracuse. 

^. Are there not some other islands ? 

A. Yes ; Sardinia to which the dominion of 
ijts king, (formerly duke of Savoy) is nov/ limit- 
ed. The principal town Cagliari : Corsica, 
which forms a department of France, stands 
between the continent of Italy and Sardinia. 
There is the island of Malta also about 60 miles 
south of Sicily, at present garrisoned by the 
British. 

^. Have there not ^been several additions to 
the kingdom of Italy by the last war of 1806 ? 



AP*TS AND SCIENCES. 119 

A. There have : for besides Istria, a consi- 
derable part of Styria and Garinthia, all 
Carniola", a great part of Tyrol, and some part 
of Dalmatia and Craotia, have been added to 
the kingdom of Italy ; so that the river Save 
forms the boundary which separates the Italian 
kingdom from the Austrian territory. 

The principal rivers of Italy are the Po, Arno, 
Tiber, Var, Adda, Adige, Trebia, Piave, Tagli- 
amento, Liconso. 

^ You have not mentioned Venice or Ge- 
noa ? 

A. Venice, as a power, was by the French 
overthrown, and its territory parcelled out be- 
tween the Austrian emperor as was before noti- 
ced, but in the subsequent wars between Austria 
and France, it was taken from Austria, together 
with I stria and Dalmatia, and annexed to the 
kingdom of Italy. 

Genoa, under the ancient classic name of Li« 
guria, also forms part of the French empire. 



ito 



AN EPITOME or THE 



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ABTS AXB SCIENCES. 



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Government, 


Dukedom annexed to Saxony. 
French departments. 

Do. 
Kingdom of Italy. 
French departments. 
Regal despotism. 
Part of kingdoni of Italy. 
Dukedom of France. 
Part of kingdom of Italy. 

Do 

Do. 
Britisii colony. 
Kingdom of ttaly. 

Do. 

Do. 


1 

ft; : 


25,000 

20,000,000 

2,000,000 

5,000,000 

3,000,000 

10,000,000 

6,000,000 

2,500,000 

850,000 

loo 000 

700,000 

Uncertain. 

C75,000 

85,000 

^,000,000 




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Amsterdam. 

Genoa. 

Milan. 

Rome. 

Naples. 

Venice. 

Florence. 


f 


Il.g»iii||irf|i||| 



12^ AN EPITOME or THE 

The confeda^ation of the Bhine, 

Which has taken the place of the Germanic body. 

Instituted the 1st of August, 1806. 



College df Princes, College of Kings, 




> 

H 

M 

o 

5^ 



ri 1 1 ii-i lii 1 1 iilififfflfK 

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is s g g ililillls. 



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All subject to France in a certain degree, and the code 
Napoleoa tlie esUtblished law. 



ARTS AXD SCIENCES* 12S. 



CLASS V....LESSON VI. 

OF ASIA. 

^ Is not Asia a very large and populous 
quarter of the world ? 

A. It is next in extent to America, and the 
most populous. It is considered by the learned, 
as the most ancient seat of civilization, arts, and 
sciences ; and as the source of Egyptian and 
Grecian knowlege. 

^ How is it divided ? 

A* The nations that occupy it, are more vari- 
ous and numerous than in all the other quarters 
of the globe : their names alone, would occupy 
a considerable space ; and no book or books yet 
published, have given a complete accoimt of 
them all. 

Q. Give me such an account as may lead to 
a correct idea of their situation and circumstan- 
ces ? 

A. Asia may be distributed into the northern, 
eastern, western, middle, and the inslandic or 
southern regions. 

Q. What are the lines by which you make 
this distribution ? 

A. They are as follow : 

The northern division is the most extensive, 
being nearly equal to all the rest ; but it is not 
so fine a country, nor so celebrated, nor civiliz- 
ed ; and therefore, not so interesting as the 
other parts. The extremity near the north pole 
is Siberia, under the dominion of Russia, which 
extends nearly in all parts, to the fiftieth degree 
of latitude ; and in some places, as far as the 
40th degree : next to Siberia south, are the 



i2% AN EPITOME OF THE 

western and eastern Tartars, who consist of a 
great number of unlettered tribes ; Monguls, Sa- 
moieds, Jakutski, Ostiack, Calmuc, and Usbec 
Tartars. Western Asia comprehends Arabia, 
Syria, Asiatic Turkey, Georgia, Circassia, Ar- 
menia, Bochara, and Kurdistan, or ancient As- 
syria. Eastern Asia contains China, the penin- 
sula of Korea, and Japan. 

The middle Asia may be divided into three 
divisions ; Persia on the south-west, the east- 
ern peninsula south-east ; and the countries on 
the Ganges. 

The fifth division, containing all the islands 
of the India ocean, which are yet unnumbered. 

Q. What are the dominions of the Turks in 
Asia? 

A. They at one period, held dominion over a 
great portion of Tartary, Georgia, Armenia, and 
Circassia : the Russians have dispossessed them 
of those countries^ and hold under their autho- 
rity to the borders of the Caspian sea, though 
the neighboring Tartars are rather quiescent 
than subjugated ; tlie Arabians also owe but a 
nominal subjection to the Porte ; and the petty 
states of Syria are in a similar state. The 
Avhole of Asiatic Turkey may then be reduced 
to the provinces of Caramania, Aladulia, Ama- 
sia, Natolia, and Palestine, part of Syria. 

Persia, once so celebrated in sacred and pro- 
fane history, is circumscribed in its limits, and 
reduced in its population ; it no longer presents 
the powerful empire which could send a million 
of men to overwhelm Greece ; it is cut into petty 
sovereignties, by whose rivalry the population is 
swept away, agriculture destroyed, and letters 
and the arts daily degenerating. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. ±25 

Hindustan, perhaps the most luxuriant country 
on earth, and with a people the most numerous, 
civilized, educated in a tranquil, superstitious 
subjection, the most simple in manners, and 
better fitted for the imitative arts than any on 
earth, has been for several centuries the prey of 
barbarian invaders, who have plundered the 
temples, and trampled upon the institutions of a 
people, whose principles forbid proselyteism, 
and teach unbounded toleration. Hindustan 
has been successively ravaged by the Macedoni- 
ans, Persians, and Arabians ; repeatedly by the 
Tartars, under Jenghis Khan^ and Timour, and 
by the Portuguese, Dutch, and worse than all, 
by the English....the greater part of Hindustan is 
now subjected to the latter^- 

Thibet is divided into northern and southern^ 
the latter called Boutan, and extends from Hin- 
dustan to China*; it is subjected to the Lama, a 
human idol, the innocence of whose rule, com- 
pared with the wickedness of the idols of civi- 
lized nations, entitles the superstitious Thibetan 
to comparative indulgence andxharity- 

China, which is considerably larger than Hin- 
dustan, is- the most populous nation on earthy 
amounting to at- least 60,000,000. 

The eastern peninsula of India was in former 
ages, an empire under a people who are called 
Birmans, who^ after being enslaved, for two 
centuries, have within a few years emancipated 
themselves, and regained their independence, 
but continue to be engaged with the Siamese, 
their former oppressors. The Birman empire 
is divided from Bengal by Aracan, and extended 
to the promontary of Malacca, comprehending 
Malacca, Pegu, Siam, &c. and is divided on the 
L2 



126 AN EPITOME or THE 

east from China by Cochin China, and Tonquin- 
The Birmans are separated from Hindustan 
by a lofty but narrow ridge of mountains on the 
west ; it is divided from Asam on the north..,. 
The capital is Ava ; Pegu is south of Ava, and 
supposed to be the Golden Chersonesus of an- 
tiquity. 

The islands of Andaman and Nicobar are on 
this coast. The Adamans were discovered only 
in 1789, and a colony was planted there by the 
British* The natives were wooly headed, sta- 
ture about five feet, and wore no sort of garment 
or covering ; their number wa^very small. 

The Malay country, or Malacca, is a penin- 
sula, and the nature of the people of a character 
differing from every other that is known.... 
Their language is also very much admired for 
its harmon}', and is in use on the continent, and 
over a great number of the adjacent islands, a^ 
Java, Sumatra, &c. 

^ What is remarkable of Asia beside ? 

A. From thence, beside letters and science, 
all the religions that have yet prevailed among 
civilized nations have originated ; and the Ma- 
homedan, which appears to have been a mixture 
of Jewish, Christian, and Hindu doctrines, arose 
ill Arabia, a short distance from J;he Holy, 
Land. 

i^. What is the country called the Dekkan ? 

A, The whole western peninsula of India, 
from Guzzerat to Comorin, was formerly called 
by that name, which means tht southern region^ 
but the name remains to only a small portion 
^f the country, and the Nizam of Golconda is 
^le nominal sovereign, subject to England-. 

.^. How was the rest disponed of ? 



ARTS AND SCIEJfGES, ±Z7 

A. The Malabar, or western shore, was occu- 
pied in succession from south to north, by the 
rajah of Travancore, the Zamorin or his de- 
scendants, the rajah of Cannanore, the Koorgs 
or mountaineers, the Nayrs, the Bedanore 
country under the Hyderee dynasty, lately des- 
troyed by the British, and the Poonah Mahratta 
also taken under the British direction. The 
east side, and the interior to the mouth of the 
Kistna river, Avas occupied by various rajahs 
and chiefs, Mahomedan and Hindu; among 
whom were the Nabobs of Arcot, and the Carna^ 
tic, and rajah of Tanjore ; thence along to the bay 
of Bengal are the five northern Circars. 

The islands forming southern Asia are nu- 
merous, and among them are the two largest 
islands in the world. They ha^e lately been 
classed into three divisions. 

1. The eastern Archipelago, containing the 
Sumatran chain, Sumatra, Java, Timor, the Ce- 
lebes, Borneo, the Manillas, the Spice islands 
of Amboyna, Gillolo, Tidore, Ternate, &c. 

2* The Australasia, containing New Holland, 
which has been called the fifth continent (or Not- 
Asia) being three fourths as large as Europe..^. 
New Guinea, New Britain and Ireland, New 
Caledonia, and New Zealand, New Hebrides, 
and Van Deiman's land. 

3. The Polynesia, containing the Pelew isl- 
ands, Ladrones, Sandwich, Society, Friendly, 
Navigator's, and Marquesas.. ..the largest of 
which, Owhyhee, is 100 miles long. 

The oceans and seas adjoining Asia, are the 
Northern, Indian, apd Pacific, the Black sea, the 
bay of Bengal, the Arabian and Red seas^, the 
Levant, and Archipelago* 



128 AW EPITO^^EE OF THE 

The principal straits are Bhering's which se- 
parate it by 27 miles from America ; the straits 
of Malacca, of Sunda, Samatra, and Babelman- 
del. 

The chief rivers are the Indus, Burrumpooter, 
Kistna, Jumna, Gogra, Coleroon, Caveri, Gan- 
ges, the Narbudda, Irrawaddy, Menan, Kian- 
ku, Hoan-ho, the Obby, Irtish, Yenesci, and 
Tigris. 

The mountains are the Thibetean or Boutan, 
in which is a mountain of salt, the Shamoo, Alsh, 
Taurus, the Balla Ghauts or table mountains of 
Mysore, the Bahar mountains, and Caucasus. 

^ How is Arabia circumstanced ? 

A. Arabia is separated by the isthmus af Suez 
from Egypt, which is part of Africa, and by the 
Red sea on the west ; on the south-east by the 
Erythrean or Arabian sea, which divides Africa 
from India -, and on the north-west by the gulph 
of Persia. 

Arabia is divided into : t . Arabia the Happy, 
which is the south west part between Mecca 
and the straits of Aden. 2. Arabia the Stony, 
or the small district on the Red sea, between 
Egypt and Palestine ; the chief town is Suez,, 
and in this country are Mounts Sinai and Ho- 
reb, celebrated in the Holy Scriptures. 3^. 
Arabia the desart, the inland country. 

Mecca and Medina; are celebrated for being 
the holy places of the Mahomedans, and the 
places of the birth and death of their leader.... 
Mocha is celebrated for its coffee, and Socotra, 
an island on the coast, for its aloes. The horses 
ef Arabia are the finest in the world. 

^ What other countries are there in the 
neighborhood of Arabia ? 



AKTS AND SCIENCBSi. 129 

A. Armenia is north of Kurdistan, and Irak 
Arabia, in which is the celebrated Bagdad. 

The ancient Mesopotamia, between the Ti- 
gris and Euphrates, is now" called Diarbekir; 
the ancient land of Canaan, is the modern Syria 
on the Mediterranean. 

The principal rivers are the Tigris and Eu- 
phrates ; and the mountains are Ararat, and 
Libanus. The islands are Cyprus, Rhodes, 
Scios, or Chios, Mytelene, and Cos, whence 
came Cos lettuces. 

^ Have any changes taken place in Arabia I 

A. The power of the Ottoman government 
has ceased in Arabia ; and a new adventurer of 
the name of Abdul Nachab^ has set up a new re- 
ligious standard, and made proselytes from the 
Mahomedan tenets ; the Wahabies have taken 
Mecca and the celebrated stories of Mahomed ; 
but their warfare has not yet closed. 

^. Where is the country called Cachemere 
situated ? 

A. It is situated in a delightful and extensive 
valley surrounding a double ridge of mountains 
in 34 degrees north latitude, a fine climate and 
a rich soil, watered by thousands of rivulets 
which contribute their stream to form the river 
Behut I the capital is Sirinagur or the city of 
God. The Behut falls into the Atock or Sinde 
river, which has its rise in the mountains that 
circumscribe Cachemere ; Labor and the Paun- 
jaub are south of Cachemere ; the mountains of 
Nagragaut on the east, and Cabone, Candahar^ 
and Persia on the west. 



130 AN EPITOME OF THE 

CLASS V....LESSON vn. 

OF ASIA. 

^. WHAT is the geography of China ? 

A* China is separated on the north from Tar- 
tary by the great wall ; it is bounded by the 
Chinese seas on the south ; and extends from 
the Pacific ocean to Thibet, is of about the same 
extent, and in the same climates as the United 
States. 

The chief cities are Pekin, Nankin, and Can- 
ton ; the rivers are Kiang and Whangho. Ko- 
rea is subject to China. The largest of the 
Chinese islands are Formosa, and Hainan ; the 
36 isles of Leeoo-keeoo, form a separate civiliz- 
ed nation^ but subject to China. 

Japan is a very large island, populous and 
independent ; the island of Niphon is depend- 
ent on it, and several others. 

^ How is Persia considered ? 

A* Of Persia, the principal places, (for they 
are no longer cities,) are Ispahan, Shiraz,Tefflis, 
and Gombroon. 

There are veiy few rivers in the whole coun- 
try, and those small : the river Rucknabad cele. 
brated by the poet Sadi, is a mere brook, fre- 
quently dried up during the summer. The 
Caspian sea is on the northern frontier. 

^. Give me some account of Hindustan ? 

A. It w^as divided into hither India, and In- 
dia beyond the Ganges ; but this division was 
at no time a judicious one, as many nations oc- 
cupied the intermediate country formed by the 
great rivers, which contribute to the formatioai 



I 



ARTS AND SCIEJrCfiS. 13l 

oftliat celebrated river, and some both sides^ 
of it. 

Hindustan was originally occupied by a people 
whose government was a refined superstition ; 
which made the priests supreme, not only as 
lawgivers, but as partaking, themselves, of the 
divine nature : it is the opinion of some of the 
most learned men, that the religious institutions 
of Egypt and Greece were derived from the 
Hindus : the same people still form seventeen 
twentieths of the population. The Mahomedan 
invaders, nevertheless subdued and established 
themselves in Hindustan, and their descendents 
still remain possessed of vast portions of the 
territory. The whole country, after the invasion 
by Europeans, was soon parcelled out among 
such chiefs as had resolution and address to 
adapt their measures to their ambition. Before 
the last great usurpation by the British in 1803, 
the most powerful and influential of the powers 
of that country stood nearly as in the statistical 
table annexed. 

^. Which are the principal divisions or peo- 
ple of India ? 

A, The Mahrattahs, Seiks, Jaats, Rohillas, 
Patans, Rajepoots....in the middle India; on the 
coast, of Malabar, the Koorgs, Canarins, and 
Nayrs ; on the coast of Coromandel and bay of 
Bengal, the Ouriahs, Telingahs, Dekkannes^ 
Bengalese, &c. 

^. Who are the Mahrattas ? 

A. They are of the aboriginal stock of Hindus- 
tan, and owe their separate distinction of a 
nation to the invasions of the Mahomedans ; 
their founder was an enterprizing individual of ■ 
\he name oiSavajee or Shevajee^ from their con- 



133 JLN EPITOME OF THE 

figuration of the divinity called Chiven^or Chev^i 
they were a very powerful confederation, but 
falling under several leaders, they were divided, 
and wrought upon to destroy each other, until 
the whole are now nearly subjected to European 
masters. Their country extended over a vast 
portion of Hindustan, from Guzzerat to the bay 
of Bengal. 

^ Who are the people called Seiks ? 

A. They are originally of the Jaats, an Hindu 
tribe, from whom they became schismatics, and 
contrary to the system of the Hindus, admit 
proselytes, though they make no other profes- 
sion of religion, than that of a belief in the being 
of God ; a sectary of any other religion, be- 
lieving in God, may become a Seik, only by 
conforming to their social habits and usages^ 
among which is that of never cutting or shaving 
the hair from any part of their persons. 

^ What country do they inhabit ? 

A. They are not established as a distinct na- 
tion little more than a century ; they first settled 
in the countries of the Paunjaab, Moultan, and 
Lahore.. ..and now possess a country of 800 
miles long, by 500 broad ; the city of Lahore 
had been their capital, but it has been several 
times wrested from them by the Dourannies ; 
Loorpoor and Loldong have been their capitals 
at various times. Their country is bounded 
south-east by the chain of mountains which 
range in a north-west direction from Napal, and 
continue to form the boundary of Cachimere ; 
on the northwest the country of Caboul ; on the 
south Moultan and Sirhind, to the vicinity of 
Delhi. They have extended their proselytism 
aver great part of the surrounding countries.... 



ARTS Jl^D SCIEXCES. 13S 

For their population and revenue, see tjie statis- 
tical table. 

^ Who-are the Rohillas ?" ' 

J. They are a Tartar tribe who entered India 
as adventurers, at a period not remote, and be- 
coming partizans in the local contests, soon 
became masters of the conquered. 

^ Whence is their name derived ? 

A. From Roh the name of a province in Af- 
ghanistan their original country ; that territory 
which they acquired in Hindustan, was called af- 
ter them, Rohilkund. Itconsistedof a variety of 
territory detached from more ancient possessors, 
and at one period contained Allahabad between 
the Jumna and Gunga ; from whence they were 
extirpated by the British during the viceroyalty 
of Hastings* They were the avowed enemies of 
the Mahrattahs, who connived at their destruc- 
tion by the Britsh. 

^. What is their present state ? 

A. Only the small country of Rampoor now 
remains of all Rohilkund. 

^ Who are the Jaats? 

A* An Hindu tribe, who upon the decline oS 
the Moguls, seized upon Agra; the Rana of 
Gohud (destroyed by Hastings) was of the Jaat 
tribe ; this country was called Bundailcund ; 
being oppressed by the British and Mahrattahs, 
they have fixed upon Uktowah as their capital. 

^ Who are the Patans ? 

A They are of the same original stock as the 
Rohillas, from Afghanistan ; their chief place is 
the city of Mow, near Furrokabad : they had a 
temporary celebrity under their chief Mozuffur 
Jung ; but at this time they are no otherwise 
distinguished than as forming with the Rohillasr 



134 AN KPITOME or THE 

the finest soldiers of the Mahoniedan cast in the 
armies of their British conquerors. They very- 
much resemble our American Osage Indians, 
are of a light yellow complexion, with fine 
features, eyes, and teeth, handsome, tall, and 
muscular. 

^. Who are the Rajepoots ? 

A. They are Hindus of the second or military 
tribe, whose descendants became so numerous 
as to form a very considerable nation. 

SI* What is the situation of their country ? 

A. They are divided under chiefs too nume- 
rous for notice ; but the principal of them are 
the rajah of Joudpour, about 120 miles S. W. 
of A gra, and on the river Pudder, which falls 
into the gulph of Cutch ; the other, the rajah of 
Jeypour, about 80 miles east of the former on a 
branch of the river Chumbul which falls into the 
Jumna. 

^ What part of Hindustan is called the Car- 
natic ? 

A. It is all that range of coast from Cape Co- 
morin to the delta of the Kistna river, common- 
ly known by the name of the Coromandel coast ; 
it is about 1000 miles from north to south, 
and of an irregular breadth, from 60 to 200 
miles. 

^. To whom was it subject under the native 
powers ? 

A. It was originally part of the Dekkan or 
southern Hindustan, but was under various petty 
chiefs, before its subjection to the British ; such 
as the rajah of Palnaud, nabobs of Angole, of 
Vellore, Arcot, the Carnatic Jaghire, rajah of 
Tanjore, nabob of Madura. 

^. Do not those chiefs remain i 



ARTS AND SCIEXCES, 135 

A. Yes ; but they are really governed by Eng« 
lish officers, called residents^ and are the admin- 
istrators of their revenues. 

^. Is this country always called the Carnatic ? 

A. It is sometimes called the Payen Ghaut, 
to distinguish it from Balla Ghaut, or the table 
land of Mysore ; the Carnatic being a vast plain 
at the foot of the very precipitous mountains of 
Mysore. 

^. What is the Mysore country ? 

A. It is in Hindustan known by the name of 
the Carnatic Balla Ghaut, and consists of a vast 
plain country on the summit of a range of moun- 
tains. It was originally governed by Hindus, 
but was taken from them by the cebrated Hyder 
Ali, from whose son Tippoo it was conquered a 
few years ago by the British. The chief city 
of the ancient government was Mysore, after 
which the country has been called; Hyder built 
the city of Seringapatam. 

^. What are the adjoining countries ? 

A. On the south and east the Carnatic ; on the 
west the Malabar coast, and on the north the an- 
cient Visiapour, and Poonah Mahrattah country, 
and on the N. E. the countries of theNi^am. Its 
extent, population, and revenue, may be seen in 
the statistical table. 

^. What is the Malabar country ? 

A. It is the west coast of the western penin- 
sula, as Coromandel is the east ; and contains a 
great number of petty governments. The rajah 
of Travancore is on the west side of the cape 
Comorin, next to which, north, is Cochin ; then 
Calicut, or the country of the Zamorin, from 
thence the country along the coast for a conside- 
rable distance^ is occupied by the ruder races of 



136 .^ EPITOME or THE 

men, called Nairs and Koorgs, the chief place oi 
the latter is Coorwar, at the northern extremity 
of which is the island of Goa, held by the Portu- 
guese; thecountry on the continentthen assumes 
the name of Concan ; and contiguous to that is 
the Poonah country ; north of which is the Ba- 
lagana, part of which owns the Nizam's autho- 
rity; the countryof Surat succeeds, and Cambay 
through which the noble river Narbuddah rolls 
into the gulph of Cambay ; and at the west side 
of the Peninsula of Guzzerat, the noble river 
Puddar falls into the Gulph of Guzzerat, or 
Cutch. 

^ What ifs Guzzerat ? 

A. A promontory formed by the gulphs of 
Cutch and Cambay, a very fertile country, under 
the Mahrattah rule, till subjected by the British 
in 1 803* 

^ Does the Malabar coast terminate here ? 

A. Between the Narbudda and the Attock^ 
Sind or Indus, there is a small territory called 
Jesselmere. 

^ Does what is called India terminate at 
the Attock river. 

A. The little territory of Tata on the sea 
coast extends to the west of the Attock, and 
India is properly divided by a ridge of moun- 
tains which separate Tata from the Persian 
province of Meeran, which is at the entrance of 
the Persian Gulph, 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. IST 

AN EPITOME 

OF THE 

.IBTS .IXn SCIE.YCES. 



CLASS VL..XESSON L 

OF ASIA. 

^ WHAT of the island of Bombay ? 

A. It is the seat of the British government on 
the Malabar coast, but subordinate to the gov- 
ernor general of India, who resides at Calcutta. 
The island is small, but the territory annexed to 
it by the conquest of Mysore is very considera- 
ble. This island came into the possession of 
the British, as part of the dowry of the princess 
of Portugal, who married Charles II. king of 
England. Adjoining it is Salsette, an island 
wherein are some of the most extraordinary re- 
mains of antiquity in a cavern evidently wrought 
by human hands out of the solid rock ; and of 
an antiquity much greater than any existing his=- 
tory can account for. 

^ What is the country of the Nizam and 
who is he ? 

A. The name is a title answering to the word 
lieutenant or deputy governor ; and was confer- 
red by Nadir Shah, upon the first of the present 
race, a native of Samarcand, under the name of 
Nizam and Sbubahdar of the Dekkan. He ori- 
ginally held the territory of Malwa, the present 
Mahrattah country, Oude, Guzzerat, and the 
h2 



ioS Ay EPITOME OF THE 

whole peninsula, but successive revolutions con- 
fined him to the remotest realms of Bajapour, 
now Dowlutabad, Visiapour, and Golconda, 
of which the capital is at present Hydrabad. 

^. What is its position ? 

A, In relation to the other modern states, it 
is bounded on the north and west by the Mahrat- 
tahs, on the south and west by the Mahrattahs 
and Mysore ; and on the south and east by 
Orissa and the fiv^e northern sircars, a narrow 
range of territory, a continuation of the coast of 
Coromandel which terminates with the Balasore 
river, in the bay of Bengal. 

^ What is the country of Orissa ? 

A. It is one of the three provinces which the 
English obtained from the Mogul ; but only a 
small part of it was in their actual possession till 
1803. It is neither so populous nor productive 
as the other two provinces. 

^. Is Bahar populous ? 

A. It is a flourishing rich province, in popu- 
lation, agriculture, arts, manufactures, and valu- 
able mines ; it is watered by numerous rivers, 
and extends on both sides the Ganges. Patna 
is the capital of Bahar; as Balasore is of Orissa. 

^. What is Bengal ? 

A. It was in ancient times, an independent 
rountry, with a distinct language, and on account 
of its fertility was called the Paradise of nations ; 
and is now one of the most fruitful, rich, and 
populous, in Hindustan. The ancient capital 
was Moorshedabad, but upon the usurpation by 
the English, the town of Calcutta became the 
seat of power, and is now the actual capital of 
all Hindustan. 

.?\ What are the countries adjoining Betogal? 



AUTS AND SCIEKCES. 139 

A. On the sea coast is Arracan, a petty nation 
alternately dependant on, or in revolt against 
the Birmans. The immense river Burrumpoo- 
ter divides Bengal from Asam ; north of which 
is Coos Bahaar, conquered by the English in 
1792 : the range of mountains that divides Ben- 
gal from Boutan or Lower Thibet, begins there, 
dividing it from the valley of Nepaul. These 
mountains go in almost a direct line, north west, 
to Cachimere. On the west, Bengal is bounded 
by part of Orissa, and a considerable part of 
Bahar. 

^ What are the countries which bound Bahar ? 

Jl. The charming countries of Allahabad and 
Benares, w^ith a strip of the Oude country. 

^ Describe Benares and Allahabad ? 

ji. Benares is the most sacred place of the 
Hindus ; it is their Mecca j their Jerusalem ; 
there the most learned Bramins have various, 
colleges, and thither thousands of pilgrims annu- 
ally resort. Allahabad is at the confluence of 
two rivers, and is sometimes spoken of under 
the name of Doaub^ from the words doit two, and 
aub water : the country on the ancient Oxus, is 
called the Paunjaub, or five waters. Allahabad 
presents vast ruins, which bespeak a very higfe 
state of civilization and arts, at a remote age. 

^. What other countries are adjoining ? 

A. South of Allahabad and Orissa are th^ 
Berar and Cutac countries, subject to the Bon- 
selah Mahrattahs, the capital is Nagpoor ; and 
further west, the small remnant of Candeish ; 
to the northward of both, is Malwa, and other 
countries of the Mahrattahs : the capital of Scin- 
dea is Ougcin : the capital of Holkar is En- 
dore. 



149 AX EPITOME or TlfB 

^ We have once more, I find, got Into the 
middle of India... .proceed with the other coun- 
tries ? 

A. North of Malwa, are, on the west side, 
Agimere, adjoining Guzzerat, subject to the 
Rajepoots and Mahrattahs ; on the north east- 
ward is the Agra country, and still farther north 
east is Oude ; the capital is Lucknow, a very 
celebrated city, once the capital of the vizier 
of the Mogul empire. 

Beyond Agimere is the country of Moultan, 
and still further norths Lahore, or the Paunjaub ; 
which name signifies thej^*z;^tf<2?er5 or rivers, and 
these are the rivers over which Alexander of Ma- 
cedon passed in his wild and desolating scheme 
of ambition to conquer Asia. Those rivers are 
the Oxus, &c. of Alexander. 

^. What is the country west of Lahore or 
the Paunjaub. 

A» Caboul, or what we have before noticed as 
the original country of the Rohillas and Jaats, 
under the name of Afghanistan. It is bordered 
by Persia on the south, Khorassan on the west, 
and Bochara on the north. 

^. Is this country remarkable ? 

A. Yes. ...for a very warlike people, who have 
several times overrun Hindustan within the last 
SO years : the people are sometimes called Tou- 
reen Oudals, and Abdallies ; and sometimes 
Douranies, from Douran a celebrated leader of 
theirs who seven times invaded India. 



ARTS JLSB SCIENCES. 



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144 AX EPITOME or TlkE 



CLASS VI...XESSON II. 

OF AFRICA. 

^ GIVE me some account of Africa r 

A. This quarter of the earth is near 5006 
miles long ; and at its broadest part, about 4500 
miles wide. It is divided from Asia by the 
Red sea, and Isthmus of Suez, and from Europe 
by the narrow straits of Gibraltar. This conti- 
nent is broadest at about ten degrees north lati- 
tude, and from thence to the cape of Good Hope, 
narrows irregularly. The greatest part of Afri- 
ca is in the hottest climates, being crossed by 
the equinoctial and the two tropics. 

^ What countries are most remarkable in 
Africa ? 

A. Egypt is the most celebrated on many ac- 
counts ; but Africa is also very much celebrated 
in ancient history, on account of the commercial 
republic of Carthage, the rival of Rome : in mo- 
dern history, as the seat of the piratical powers 
on the Mediterranean, and as the source of the 
disgraceful trade of slaves, carried on by Eu- 
ropean nations. ^ 

^ How is Africa divided ? 
The North Eastern, or course of the Nile. 

Eastern Zanguebar. 

Southern Caffraria* 

Western NegrolandorNigriti^- 

Southern Barbary. 

Central The Desart. 

The first of these divisions contains Egypt, or 
the mouths of the Nile. ...Nubia, and Abyssinia^ 
and the sources of the Nile. 

^. What of Egypt? 



ARTS AXD SCIEXCfiS. 145 

A. This celebrated country is divided into 
Upper and Lower Egypt, and extends from the 
mouths of the Nile to the southward, about 700 
miles, and embraces the country on both sides 
of the Nile, for an average of 200 miles. The 
Nile falls into the Mediterranean at several 
mouths, and the country owes its fertility to the 
overflowings of the river periodically. 

i^ How is it bounded ? 

A* By the Mediterranean on the north, the 
Red Sea east, the desarts of Barca on the west, 
and Nubia, Abyssinia, and Ethiopia on the south. 

Egypt was in ancient times the seat of learn- 
ing and philosophy, arts and refinement ; and 
the stupendous monuments which remain in the 
cities of Upper Egypt, and the pyramids of 
Lower Egypt, testify to the perfection of the 
arts, and mechanical and architectural science. 

Egypt was long the resort of the Grecians, as 
a fountain of science ; but in successive ages 
it fell a prey to barbarism and superstition. It 
was conquered by the Macedonians, who built 
the city of Alexandria, which is still a very cele- 
brated place. Cairo is the capital. It was in- 
vaded by the French in 1799, and conquered ; 
and re-conquered by the British. Its history 
has been much illustrated by the Freach. 

Besides Cairo and Alexandria there are Ro- 
setta, Damietta, and Bulac, considerable places. 

In Upper Egypt the country of Seid, in which 
are the stupendous remains of ancient cities, 
and numerous pyramids. 

Nubia and Abyssinia have been visited by 
some modern travellers, but excepting the cir- 
cumstance of greater civilization than on the 
western coasts, nothing peculiarly interesting 
lias been discovered. 

N 



146 AN EniOME OF THE 

^ What of Zanguebar ? 

A. It is the eastern coast of Africa on the In- 
dian ocean, and comprehends from the south on 
the Mozambique, Mauruca, Magadoxa, Ajan, 
and Adel, vvhi'ch borders on Abyssinia ; on the 
south Monomotapa joins Pvlauruca, next to 
which south is Caffraria. On the western coast 
is Negroland, which begins from the south with 
Mataman, Benguela, Angola, Loango, Benin, 
Guinea, &c. — These latter divisions are the 
countries from whence slaves are barbarously 
seduced and betrayed away for traffic. 

The Desert or Zahara, is the interior of these 
countries. 

^. What are the countries of the northern di- 
vision of Africa ? 

A. On the Atlantic is Morocco, under an em- 
peror who also rules Fez ; both countries may 
extend TOO miles by 250; bounded west by the 
Atlantic, north by the straits of Gibraltar, east 
by Algiers, and on the south and south east by 
Belidulgerid or ancient Numidia andTaffilet. 

Tht chief mountain is the celebrated Atlas, 
w^hich extends from east towestthe whole length 
of Barbary, and in which the rivers of the coun- 
try rise. Those of Morocco are JNIalva, whick 
is the boundary between Algiers, the Suz, Onri- 
rabih, Laroche, &c. The capital is Mequinez 
in the country of Fez ; but it has Salee, a port 
on the Atlantic, once noted as the nurserj-and 
asylum of pirates. 

'^. What is the country called Algiers ? 

A. It is composed of parts of the ancient 
countries called Mauritania and Numidia, some* 
times called Massyli. It is bounded on the 
north by the Mediterranean opposite to Spain, 
and is about 500 miles long by 200 broad.- 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 147 

Besides Atlas, there are other mountains, as 
Jibbel Auros, El Kallah ; its rivers are nume- 
rous but not spacious, they are Wedel Kibr, 
Wedel Hamian, El Esner, El Haamase ; the 
chief city is Al Ghezlr, which has been corrupt- 
ed into Algiers, andhas given the name we use to 
the whole country. There are other small towns, 
but in common with all the neighboring powers, 
they are very little removed from barbarism. 

^ What country adjoins Algiers ? 

A. That of the Bey of Tunis, the country of 
the once flourishing and celebrated: Carthage, 
and now one of the most wretched of nations. 
It is on the Mediterranean, and bounded east by 

Tripoli ', it is ^bout 5SQ mik§ loT^g m<X ISO 
broad. 

The city, from which the country takes its 
name, is the only one worthy of notice. 

Next to Tunis is Tripoli, composed of parts 
of the ancient Syrtica and Cyrene ;*it is equally 
wretched with Tunis and less populous ; the 
country is upwards of 1000 miles long by 100 
broad; and the capital is the only place of note. 

To the east of Tripoli is Barca, the ancient 
Cyrene, once famous for the temple of Jupiter 
Ammon, now a barren arid desert, though this 
whole country is susceptible of the fmest culti- 
vation, and formerly produced the greatest and 
most luxurious abundance. 

All those states subsist by piracy, and to the 
scandal of the nations called civilized and Chris- 
tian, many submit to pay them an annual tribute. 

^. What are the principal rivers of Africa 
besides the Nile ? 

J. The Gambia, Congo, Zarie, Zebee, NJ- 
ger, Senegal, and numerous others. 



H8 AN EPITOME or THE 

^ Are the African islands numerous ? 

A. They are not so numerous as those of the 
ttther quarters of the globe, but there are still 
many. 

^. In tlie Indian Ocean there are Madagascar 
larger than Great Britain, being lOOO miles long 
and 250 broad, Mauritius, Bourbon, the Comora 
islands, and Socotro at the entrance of the Red 
Sea. In the south Atlantic are St. Helena and 
Ascension ; and in the north Atlantic several 
groups of valuable islands. 

The small islands in the gulph of Guinea call- 
ed St. Thomas, Fernando Po, &c. 

The Cape de Verds, first discovered by the 
Poriun-uese in 1460, the chief of which is St. 

The Canaries, which are about 60 miles from 
Alorocco ; they are seven in number, among 
which is the celebrated mountain or peak of 
Teneriffe. The principal island is called the 
Grand Canary, and is about 150 miles in circuit 
....capital Palma. 

The Madeiras, which are about 60 miles north 
of the Canaries, and 100 miles west of Salee in 
Morocco. The islands beside Madeira are 
Porto Santo and Desolate Island. Funchal is the 
capital of Madeira. 

The Azores, though placed here, do not pro- 
perly belong to any quarter of the globe, being 
nearly equidistant from each.. ..they are nine in 
number, of which Tercera is the most fre- 
quented. 

In Africa there is no inland sea, and but one 
lake of great extent, that of Maravia. Besides 
Mount Atlas, those that are called the mountain^ 
of the Moon are lofty ranges. 



ATtTS AND SOIEKCES. 



149 



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150 AN EPITOME OV TIfE 



AN EPITOME 



JIETS ^XB SCIE;^^CES: 



CLASS VII....LESSON L 

OF AMERICA. 

^. AS it is fit that a knowlege of our own^ 
country should be our more particular concern 
and study, give me a suitable account thereof ? 

A. America is the largest of the four divisions 
of the globe, being about 9000 miles froni north 
to south, and near 4000 in breadth. It is com- 
jaosed of two grand divisit)ns or continents, made 
bv nature ; North and South America, which 
are joined by a narrow itshmus of land of 57 
miles width, at Darien or Panama. 

America was not known to the people of the 
Cither quarters of the globe, till Columbus, a 
I'ltizen of Genoa, discovered it in 1492. Ame- 
.] icus Vespucius, a navigator of Tuscany, by his 
voyages and address, contrived to give his name 
to this quarter of the world. 

^ Give me some account of South America ? 

A> This part of the American continent, was 
principally under the government of European- 
nations, but in 1810 threw off their dependence 
'.\n Spain. 

The following are the grand divisions of t\^ 
southern rontinent of America : 



ARTS AKD SCIENGES. 151 

WEST COAST. 

Terra Firma, formerly subject to Spain. 

Peru, Do. 

Chili, Aborigines, 

Patagonia, . . Do. 

EAST COAST. 

Paraguay, (Jesuits) Spain. 
Brazil, Portugal. 

Maragnan, (Amazonia) Aborigines. 
Guiana, settled by France, occupied by 

the British. 
Surinam, Do. Dutch, Do. 

Besides the islands in the Pacific and Atlantip 
oceans. 

^ How is Terra Firma situated ? 

A. It is an extensive country, containing nine 
large provinces. ...as Terra Firma proper, Dari- 
en, Carthagena, St. Martha, Rio de la Haca, 
Venezuela, Cumana, Paria, Grenada, and Po- 
payan. 

It is 1400 miles long, and 700 broad ....the 
capital is Panama, on the South Sea, one of the 
finest harbors in the world. There the 
British began an establishment in 1810. In this 
province the Andes commence. 

South of this division is Peru, which is divi- 
ded into the three provinces of Quito, north ; 
Lima, middle ; Caraccas, south. In this coun- 
try, are the celebrated cities of Lima, Cusco, 
and Potosi. Here also are the loftiest moun- 
tains in the world. Chimborazo is said to be 
near four miles high. Peru is 1800 miles long^ 
by 600 broad. 

Chili is divided into two parts by the Andes ; 
Chili proper, on the east j and Cuyo the west:- 
Capital St. Jago. 



'152 A]Sr EPITOME or THE 

Patagonia is separated by the straits of Ma- 
gellan from Terra del Fugo, and is about TOO 
miles by 300. The natives are in a savage state, 
as is the whole country to the neighborhood of 
Paraguay. 

Paraguay is 1500 by 1000 miles, and divided 
into the provinces of Paraguay, Parana, Guaira,, 
Urangua, Tucuman, and Laplata. The capital 
is Buenos Ayres. This country was not com- 
pletely subjected to Spain. The religious socie- 
ty of Jesuits established there a sacerdotal 
government : but vast portions of the natives 
live totally independent. The lakes in this 
country are extensive, particularly that of Za- 
raya ; Caracordes is 100 miles long. The La 
Plata is the largest river in the known world, 
and is 50 leagues broad at its entrance. It 
receives the Paraguay, Salt, Red, Pilcomoyo, 
Grand, and Uraquay rivers, and some hundred 
others. 

Brazil embraces a very large space on this 
continent ; being 2500 miles long by 700 broad. 
It is separated from Maragnan and Paraguay 
by a vast chain of mountains ; and extends along 
the coast narrowly to the mouth of La Plata, and 
from thence along the shore of the Atlantic to 
the Maragnan (or Amazon) river, which is the 
next river to La Plata in magnitude, on earth. 
The capital is Rio Janeiro, but the seat of gov- 
ernment is Bahaia, or St. Salvador. Many fine 
rivers rise in the interior mountains. It is the 
richest and most prolific country in South Ame- 
rica. 

Maragnan (or Amazonia) is an inland coun- 
try, very little known to foreign travellers.... 
The great river Maragnan rises in Quito and 



ARTS AND SCIENCE*. 153 

runs 5000 miles in its course to the Atlantic, 
and receives the tribute of some hundreds of 
rivers ; it is a fine country, though close under 
the equinoctial. 

Guiana commences with the Maragnan, agree- 
able to a treaty of extension of 1801. It was 
formerly bounded by the Arwary south ; and it 
extends north west along the coast to the rivei 
Oronoco. 

^. Are these the only territoriesthat were held 
by Spain in Souih America, which you have no- 
ticed ? 

J. Yes... ..but they possessed also large terri- 
tories to the northward. 

^ Which are they ? 

A. North of Darien, are Varagua, Costa Ri- 
ca, Gautimala, Honduras, Yucatan, and some 
other provinces subordinate to these, and de- 
pendent on Mexico. 

^. Where does North America commence ? 

A. This isthmus is the received boundary, 
commencing with old Mexico. 

^. What are the Dutch settlements ? 

A. Surinam, or Dutch Guyana, as it is some- 
times called, takes its name from the river Suri- 
nam, on which Paramaribo, the capital, is situ- 
ated. Its length is about 350 miles from south- 
east to north-west, along the shores of the 
Atlantic ; but only 160 in breadth. New Mid- 
dleburg, another town in this colony, is situated 
near the north-west extremity of it, and Deme- 
rara is a settlement on a river of the same name, 
llie Dutch first settled here in 1663 ; but were 
expelled four years after by the English, whose 
descendents still form part of the inhabitants..,. 
It was resumed by the Dutch in 1676, but great 



154 AX EPITOME OF THE 

part of it is yet unexplored. The principal 
rivers are the Esequibo, which receives the short 
stream of the Demerara, the Corentin, and 
Berbice, on which there is a settlement of the 
same name. This colony produces abundance 
of anotta^ a substance much used in dying. 

OF NORTH AMERICA. 

^. How is North America divided ? 

A. The greater portion belongs to the Ame- 
rican republic, or United States ; but some 
European nations have colonies, such as the 
British, who possess Canada, Nova Scotia, Hud- 
son's bay, Newfoundland, and the adjacent isl- 
ands : the Spaniards also possessed East Flori- 
da, Old and New Mexico, California- 

^ What is the boundary of Mexico ? 

A. It is divided into two, old Mexico or New 
Spain, New Mexico including California, New 
Navarre, and New Biscay ; the whole are about 
2000 miles by 600 broad, Mexico seated on a 
lake of the name, and celebrated by the con- 
quests or ravages of the Spaniards, is the capi- 
taL The lakes and rivers are numerous. 

New Mexico is to the northward of the. old, 
bounded eastward and northward by Louisiana ; 
and westward by California, w^hich is a peninsula 
in the Pacific, divided by a Gulph about 180 
miles from the point of land. The capital of 
New Mexico is St. Fe, on the Rio del Nord ; 
aud is abaut 1400 long by 500 miles broad. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES* 1^5 



Class vil-..lesson il 

OF THE UNITED STATES. 

^. I Wish to have a geographical sketch of 
our own beloved country.. ..the United States ? 

A. The boundaries of the United States w^erc 
fixed by the treaty of 1783, which terminated 
the war for our independence. From the north 
west angle of Nova Scotia, formed by a line 
due north from the source of St. Croix river, 
along the mountains to the north-westernmost 
head of the Connecticut river to the 45° of N. 
latitude, thence by a line due west to the river 
Catarague, and along the middle into lake On- 
tario, thence through the Lakes Erie, Huron, 
Superior, Long Lake to the Lake of the Woods, 
and to the north-western point thereof ; thence 
in a due west course to the Mississippi ; thence 
by a line down the Mississippi till it strikes on 
31° of N. latitude, thence to St. Mary's on the 
Atlantic, the east boundary is the St. Croix ri- 
ver to the Atlantic, and comprehending all 
islands within 20 leagues of the shores of the 
United States. It is computed to be 1480 miles 
long by 1000 broad on an average, and to con- 
tain without Louisiana, 1 ,480,000 square miles. 
It is divided as follows into states and territo- 
ries, counting from the southward : 

STATKS. 

1. Georgia,, ** 6, Pennsykania, 

2. Tennessee, 7. New J' rsey, 

3. Kentucky, 8. New York, 

4. South Curolina, 9, Vermoiit 

5. North Carolina, 10. Connecticut j 



156 $.N EPITOMK OF THE 

11. Virginia, 15. Rhode Island, 

12, Ohio, 16. Massachu^et s, 
13* Maryland, 17. New Hampshire. 
14. Delaware, 

TERRITORIES. 

1. Maine, 4. Indiana, 

2. Co umbia, 5. N. Orleans, 

3. Mississippi, 6. Up. Louisiana. 

To these must be added several tracts settled 
and unsettled in various parts of the union^ 
which are under temporary forms of adminis- 
tration. 

^. In a former lesson you mention Florida.... 
to whom does it belong ? 

A» Florida was originally the name given to 
all the countries from Virginia to Mexico ; but 
as the colonial authority of the Spaniards and 
French receded south, it came at length to com- 
prehend only a range of territory south of Geor- 
gia, and extending to the river Perdido in the 
Gulph of Mexico. 

The British took Florida from the Spaniards 
during our revolution, and extended the denomi- 
nation of West Florida up the Mississippi, and 
over part of Louisiana ; East Florida they call- 
ed that promontory which is to be seen on the 
map opposite to the island of Cuba in the West 
Indies, and forming the west side of the Gulph 
of Florida... .the east side formed by the Bahama 
islands. East Florida is at present held by 
Spain, but it is expected we shall obtain posses- 
sion of it ; as the people of West Florida in 
1810, declared themselves independent, and the 
United States government, in order to secure 
their right, and to guard against a dangerous 
neighborhood, have occupied West Florida. 



ARTS AND seiEKCES. 



157 



CLASS VIL...LESSOX III. 

OF THE UNITED STATES, 

^ GIVE me some account of the geography 
of Georgia state ? 

A. This state at onetime occupied an extent 
of territory, one half larger than Great Britain 
and Ireland, larger than modern France, larger 
than the German empire. Two thirds thereof 
have been ceded to the United States to baffle 
an iniquitous fraud upon the government called 
the Yazoo speculation. Georgia now contains 
about 50,000 square miles, and is divided into 
24 counties. 



Liberty, 


Chatham, 


Camden, 


Glyn, 


Scriben, 


Burke, 


JBrian, 


M In tosh, 


Montgomery, 


Wilkes, 


Oglethorpe, 


Elbert, 


Franklin, 


Washington, 


Rutland, 


Greene, 


Hancock, 


Columbir., 


Effingham, 


Jackson, 


Jefferson, hc» &cc 


Warren, 







The chief towns are Savannah, a seaport, and 
Augusta, the seat of the state government. 

The boundaries are East Florida south, the 
river St. Marys being the line ; the Atlantic on 
the east ; South Carolina on the north, the line 
being the river Savannah ; and on the west the 
Chatahoochy or Apalachicola river, which sepa- 
rates Georgia from its ancient territory, now 
called the Mississippi territory, and passing 
East Florida, falls into the gulph of Mexico. 

The climate of Georgia is as fine as any on 
earth, and is comprehended within the 30th and 

o 



158^ AX EPITOME 0F THE 

35th degrees of north latitude, and 6 to 10 de- 
grees west of Philadelphia. 

Its rivers are numerous, as the Apalachicola, 
St. Mary^s, Great and Little Sabille, Altamaha, 
Oconee, Ocmulgee, Flint, and various oth- 
ers. 

The country Is flat towards the sea, and has 
one vast swamp, in w^hich the river St. Marys 
has its source ; it is called the Okenfonoka.... 
there are also several islands on the coast, which 
produce the finest ship timber.. ..the plantations 
of cotton are numerous and productive. 

^ How is the state of Tennessee situated ? 

A. It was formerly part of the state of North 
Carolina, but was ceded to the United States in 
1 789, and became a state in 1796, the separating 
line extending from an intersection of the Vir- 
ginia and Kentucky line on the summit of the 
Alleghany mountains, which bend to the south- 
ward, and thence approaching South Carolina, 
the south boundary strikes oif directly west, as 
the north boundary in the same direction, sepa- 
rates Tennessee from Kentucky ; so that the 
state forms an oblong, the west end of which is 
the Mississippi, and the east the Alleghany 
mountains, the breadth of which is about 105 
miles, and the length about 400. The climate 
and soil are fine, being between the 35th and 
37th degrees north latitude. The rivers are 
numerous ; the principal of which are the Ten- 
nessee, one of the finest in the union, Cumber- 
land, Clinch, Holston, and Broad rivers, with 
numerous others. 

The country is mountainous in many parts, 
and the ridges very lofty, abounding with springs 
and minerals. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 159 

The extremes of the state only, are yet nume- 
rously peopled ; the centre is yet occupied by 
forests, but the encrease of population is won- 
derful.. .*There are twenty counties in the state ; 
the principal towns are Knoxville, the seat of 
government on the Holston river, near the east 
end of the state, and Nashville on the Cumber- 
land, near the opposite end. The counties are, 

Greene, Sullivan, Washington, 

Knox, Hawkins, Cocke, 

Blount, Sevier, Robertson, 

Jefferson, Davidson, Sumter- 

Tennessee, &c. &c. 

^. What is the situation of Kentucky ? 

A* This state was formerly part of Virginia, 
the first settlements were made in 1773, and it 
was in 1792, admitted as an independent state 
into the union. It is about 360 miles long at 
the extreme ; and about 200 broad.. ..between 
the 36th and 39th degrees of north latitude ; 
and is bounded on the E. by Virginia ; on the 
N. W. by the state of Ohio ; on the S. W. by 
the Indiai-^a territory j the beautiful and mag- 
nificent rivc.r Ohio forming the boundary on 
one side, being the separation from Vii ginia to 
the confluence of that river, with the Cumber- 
land, Tennessee, and the Mississippi ; the form 
of the state approaching that of a wedge, of 
which the Mississippi washes the point ; Ten- 
nessee forming the south side. 

The country presents various ridges of moun- 
tains, of which the Cumberland is the principal. 

The rivers are numerous. ...beside the Ohio, 
the Cumberland, and Green rivers, there are 
the Sandy, Kentucky, Rolling, and Muddy ri- 
ve^rs, with various others. 



460 J^y EPITOJtfE OF THE 

The climate is charming and ^temperate, and 
the soil fertile^ and the best calculated for agri- 
culture. 

The state has encreased in population in a 
manner unprecedented* It contains forty-four 
counties, and the chief towns are Frankfort, Lex* 
ington, and Louisville, with various others. 

^ What of South Carolina? 

A* This state is bounded on the N. and N» 
E. by North Carolina, in a very irregular mea- 
sured line ; and the Alleghany mountains, which 
form the fiontier of Tennessee, touch it on 
the north, in a westwardly direction ; the Sa- 
vannah river, which rises in the Alleghany 
mountains, divides it to the Atlantic from Geor- 
gia. The form of the state is a pyramid with 
the top broken off; the Savannah river forming 
the base, the Atlantic forming one of the sides, 
which side is about 174 miles long ; the Savan- 
nah boundary about 250, and the irregular side 
about the same length. 

It extends from 32 to 25^ degrees north lati- 
tude : the land on the sea board is low, and in 
some places unwholesome ; but rises in broken 
ridges to the interior, to a fine productive soil, 
and salubrious climate. Cotton is produced in 
the interior, and rice abundantly on the sea 
board. 

This state is divided differently from the pre- 
ceding ; its first division being into nine grand 
districts or parishes, each of which are again 
sub-divided into counties : the following are the 
names of the districts : 

Beaupont, Georgetown, Ninety-six, 

Chaileston, Orange, Pinckney, 

Cberaw, Cambden> Washington, 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 



lei 



The chief city is Charleston, between Coo- 
per and Ashley rivers, which unite before it ; it 
is a fine seaport : Columbia, on the Congaree 
river^ about the centre of the state, is the seat 
of government ; there are many other flourish- 
ing towns : the rivers are numerous, as the San-^ 
tee, formed by the junction of the Wateree and 
Congaree ; the Pedes, Edisto, Pacolet, &c. &c<. 

^ North Carolina ? 

A. This state is divided from Virginia on the 
north, by a line which runs due east and west, 
from the Atlantic to the Yellow mountain, a 
branch of the Alleghany ; where it is bounded 
west by Tennessee, formerly a part of this state. 
Soath Carolina forms the southern boundary, 
and the Atlantic the eastern. 

It is between 34 and 37 degrees north lati- 
tude, between 1 and 7 degrees W. of Philadel- 
phia. It is divided into fifty-eight counties. 

Iredelly 

Surry, 

Stokes, 

Lincoln, 

Perquimonsy 

Hertford, 

Hanoverj 

Hyde^ 

Halifax, 

Jones, 

Johnston, 

Raiidolph, 

Rowan, 

Rockingham^, 

Richmond, 

Rutherford, 

Robeson, 

Wake, Sec .^ Sec. 

o2 



Campden^ 


Bladen, 


Currituck, 


Duplin, 


Craven, 


Edgcorabe, 


Carteret, 


Tyrell, 


Chatham^- 


Onslow, 


Caswell, 


Franklin, 


Chowan, 


Nash, 


Martin, 


Montgomery, 


Meclenburg, 


Moore, 


Wayne, 


Pasquotank, 


Warren, 


Anson, 


Orange, 


Gates, 


Wilkes, 


Glasgo\^ 


Sampson, 


Grenville, 


Cabarrus, 


Guilford, 


Bertie, 


Lenoir, 


Beaufofj:, 


Northampton, 


Brunswick, 


Pitt, 


Burke, 





162 AN EPITOME or TItE 

The rivers are numerous^ the Chowan, Roan- 
oke, Dan, Pamtico, Yadkin, Catabaw, &c. &c. 

Raleigh is the seat of government, but it is 
a new, though an encreasing establishment. The 
other towns are Newbern, Edcnton, Wilming- 
ton, Halifax, Fayetteville, Greenville, &€• 

The extent ol the state may be about 400 
miles east and west, by 150 broad. The country 
50 miles from the sea is flat and barren, but is 
principally occupied by its native woods. There 
are some swamps, particularly that called the 
great dismal swamp, which covers 400 square 
miles, and contains in it the Pamtico lake often 
by six miles. 

In Cabarrus county a gold mine was discover- 
ed in 1804, in which a mass of pure solid ore of 
50 pounds %yeight w^ iounx}, 



I 



auts ani> sciences. 165 



CLASS VIL...LESSON IV- 

OP THE UNITED STATES. 

'^ OF Virginia? 

A. This state on the map presents the form 
©f a vast pyramidal mountain, the base of which 
is North Carolina, and the windings of the Mo- 
nongahela ; the Ohio forms a broken line on 
the north west side resembling the progressive 
series of ridges, which correspond with similar 
irregularities in the line on the north west form- 
ed by the Potomac. Beyond the Ohio is the 
state of that name, and upon the Potomac 
are the state of Maryland and district of Co- 
lumbia. The northern extremity of Virginia 
is bounded by Pennsylvania. The Atlantic 
washes part of the coast of Virginia, and many 
of its rivers fall into the capacious bay of Che- 
sapeake. Kentucky is separated from Virginia 
by the Great Sandy river, which rises in the 
Cumberland mountains, and falls into the Ohio 
8 degrees long, west from Philadelphia. 

Virginia is 350 miles by 280 broad ; it con^ 
tains mountains of great height, the Blue Ridge, 
and Jackson's, and the Laurel mountain, are the 
highest ; the ridges run from N, E. to S. W. 
The rivers are numerous and large, among which 
are the Potomac, Rappahanoc, Powhattan, 
James' river, and Urbanna, which fall into the 
Chesapeake ; the Roanoke that penetrates North 
Carolina, the Great and Little Kenhawa which 
fall into the Ohio ; Shenandoah which falls into 
the Potomac, and the YoheogenyandMononga- 
hela which penetrate Pennsylvania, and joining 



i6it AX EPITOME ©F TIl'E 

the Alleghany at Pittsburg form part of the 
Ohio, which there first assumes that name. 

Richmond is the seat of government, and is a 
flourishing town ; there are numerous other 
cities and towns, among which are Norfolk, a 
fine seaport, Petersburg, Winchester, Staunton, 
Williamsburg, Fredericksburg, &c. 

^. Of Maryland ? 

A. It occupies both shores of Chesapeake 
bay from the mouth of the Potomac. On the 
cast side, which is called the Eastern Shore, it is 
divided by a measured line from the state of 
Delaw are, which runs north to the boundary of 
Pennsylvania ; from which it is also divided by 
a measured line running from cast to west, to 
the Virginia boundary. The Potomac is the re- 
maining boundary, only where the District of 
Columbia is separated from it. 

The bay of Chesapeake is indented with nu- 
merous smaller bays, into which numberless 
creeks and rivers discharge themselves ; tlje 
country is well calculated for agriculture and 
trade, but little atten^tion has been paid to public 
roads to profit by those advantages ; the interior 
is, like the neighboring states, hilly.. 

The rivers are the Susquehanna, which rising 
in New York state, and winding its majestic but 
oblique course through Pennsylvania, falls into 
Chesapeake near Havre de Grace. The Patux- 
ent, Patapseo, Choptank, Nanticoke, Pocomoke, 
are all navigable rivers. 

The capital is Baltimore, a flourishing city, 
the third in size and population in the United 
States ; Annapolis is the seat of government. 
Frederick is a handsome tow^n. 

This state contains 19 counties ; on the East^ 
ctn Shore are.*.* 



ARTS AX» SCIEXCEJS. 165 

Cecil, Caroline, Dorchester, 

Kent, Talbot, Worchester. 

Anns J Somerset, 

On the Western Shore are.... 

Hartford, Alleghany, Calvert, 

Baltimore, Washington, Charles, 

Arundel, Montgomery, Mary's. 

Frederick, George, 

^ Of Delaware state ? 

A. This state lies on the Delaware river and 
bay, by which it is bounded on the east, and 
separated from Jersey : a semi-circular measur- 
ed line on the north rising from the separating 
line of Maryland and terminating in the Dela- 
ware river separates it from Pennsylvania ; being 
about 100 nailes long by 26 broad. 

It is the smallest state in the union, and con- 
sists of three counties, Newcastle, Kent and 
Sussex. Dover, about the centre of the state, 
is the seat of government. The principal town 
is Wilmington, and next in consequence New* 
castle, both on the river Delaware, and places of 
trade. The rivers and creeks are many, but 
none large. A canal is now cutting which will 
unite the navigation of the Chesapeake and De- 
laware through that state. Cape Henlopen is 
at the extremity of the peninsula on which this 
state stands, on which there is a light house 
maintained by the United States. The corres- 
ponding Cape is in Jersey called Cape May. 



166 AK EPITOME OF THE 

CLASS VL...LESSON V. 

UNITED S lATES. 

^. Of Pennsylvania ? 

A. This state has for its boundaries artificial 
lines, on the south, a right line from east to west 
divides in about 40 deg. 20 min. north lat. from 
Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, all of which 
border upon it ; a parallel line in 42 degrees 
north, divides it from New- York, till it inter- 
sects the head forks of French creek, where the 
line forms a rectangle, which terminates in lake 
Erie, and comprehends part of the coast of that 
lake, with Presque Isle in its limits ; a line due 
north and south in 5 degrees 20 minutes W. 
long, from Philadelphia, or in 80 deg. 20 min. 
from Greenwich, separates it from Virginia and 
Ohio states ; on the east side the boundary 
which separates Pennsylvania from Jersey is 
the course of the river Delaware, which rises in 
York state. 

The breadth from N. to S. of Pennsylvania 
i5 about 150 miles ; its length from E. to W. 
about 268. It is intersected with mountains 
and rivers ; the Alleghany ridges, which insen- 
sibly ascend from the ocean to their summit, 
traverse the state almost diagonally, in various 
elevations, from north east, to south west, thro' 
Northampton, Bedford, Franklin, and Dauphin, 
counties, &c. The valleys between, forming 
most fertile tracts for cultivation. In those 
mountains rise the Susquehanna, Delaware, 
Schuylkill, Lehigh, Alleghany, Juniata, Cones- 
toga, &c. 



ARTS XNB SCIENCES. 



167 



The state is divided into the following comi- 
ties : 

Philadelpbid, Franklin, Greene, 

Chester. B dford, Beaver, 

Delaware, Hu tingdon, Butler, 

Bucks Miflain, Mercer, 

Montgomery, Westmoreland, Venang©, 

Lancaster, Fayette, Erie, 

York, Washington, Warren, 

Dauphin, Alleghany, Adams, 

Berks, Wayne, Crawford, 

Northampton, Somerset, Jefferson, 

Luzerne, Lycoming, M'Kean, 

Cumberland, Centre, Clearfield,-^ 

Northumberland, Armstrong, Potter. 

Tioga, Caml:)ria, 

Philadelphia; the capital, is the larges city m 
the union, and one of the most beautiful in the 
universe ; and with the most orderly police,. .• 
It stands on the west side of the Delaware, and 
on the east side of the Schuylkill, the distance 
being exactly two miles. Lancaster, the largest 
inland town in the union, is the seat of the state 
government. Pittsburgh, on the head of the 
Ohio, is a very flourishing place ; the towns 
over the face of the state are numerous. Car- 
lisle, Easton, Harrisburg, Germantown, Beth- 
lehem, Northumberland, are flourishing towns. 

^. Of Ohio i 

A. This state, the latest which has been re- 
ceived into the union, commenced its national 
career in 1802, a convention having been held, 
and the necessary laws passed. It is bounded 
on the east by Pennsylvania, on the south, by 
the Ohio river, which separates it from Virgi- 
nia and Kentucky ; on the west, by a meredian 
line commencing at the mouth of the Great 



168 AN EriTOME OF THE 

Miami river, where it falls into the Ohio, to the 
southern end of Lake Michigan ; and on the 
north, it is bounded by a line proceeding from 
the west point at Lake Michigan, due east to 
lake Erie. It appears that there was some mis- 
take in the survey, and that Michigan extends 
further south than Erie, though laid down other- 
wise in the maps. All the countries to the 
north, west, and north west of this state, is now 
called Indiana. 

The extent of this state is about 250 E. and 
W. by 200 broad ; between 38 and 42 degrees 
north lat. from Philadelphia, 5 and 11 west. 
The country is uneven, hill and valley, with 
large plains in some parts ; and is watered by 
numerous rivers....beside the lakes on which 
its north west and south west angles are situa- 
ted, and the Ohio, which washes all its south 
side ; the rivers are the Muskingum, Sciota, 
Beaver, Great and Little Miami, Miami of the 
lakes, Hockhoeing, Sandusky, Wabash, Cayuga, 

It is divided into eighteen counties, and its po- 
pulation encreases in an extraordinary degree. 

Butler, Franklin, Washington, 

Hamilton, Adams, Muskingum, 

Montgomery, Scioia, Belmont, 

Warren, Gallia, Jefferson, 

Greene, Ross C olumbiana, 

Clermont, Fairfield, Trumbull. 

Chief towns Chilicothe, Marietta, Cincinnati, 
Steubenville, Kenhaway, a French settlement, 
Schoenbrun, a German Menonist settlement on 
the Muskingum. 

This state in 1790 was occupied by the Shawa- 
nese, Wyandots and Lenapi, or Delaware In- 
dians—in 1802 was received as an independent 



ARTS AND SCIENCE8. ±69 

>Btate, with upwards of 30,000 white inhabit- 
ants ! * 

In this state are many remains of Indian anti- 
quities, which embarrass enquiry.. ..regular works 
in the manner of fortifications, some of them co- 
vering a mile in surface.. ..indicating skill in the 
arts, much superior to any thing known among 
the aborigines of their times. 
^. Of New Jersey ? 

A* This state has for its southern boundary 
the Delaware river and bay ; its northern boun- 
dary the Atlantic and the Sound at New York 
and up Hudson's river, where a line measured 
south-west thence to the Delaware river divides 
it from NewA^ork. It is situated between 39 and 
42 d. N. latitude, and 73. 75 W. of Greenwich > 
being about 160 miles long by 53 broad. 

The country is unequal in fertility, and inter- 
spersed with mountains, and in some parts bar- 
ren sands ; the middle and northern parts are 
fertile, well watered, and hill and dale inter- 
spersed. The rivers are the Rariton, Hackin- 
sac, and Passaic, and the Hudson and Dela- 
ware on its boundary lines. This state consists 
of thirteen counties of unequal extent and 
population : they are* 

Burgen, Hunterdon, Cape May, 

Essex, Sussex, Salem, 

Middlesex, Burlington, Cumberland, 

Monmouth, Gloucester, Somerset. 

Morris, 

The seat of government is Trenton, on the 
Delaware, about midway between the greatest 
length of the state; besides which there are 
Newark, Princeton, Burlington, Bordentown^ 
Elizdbethtown, Brunswick, and Morristown, 
handsome towns, and several others. 

p 



l^O AN EPIT0M1B OF TITE 

CLASS VII-..LESSON VL 

OF AMERICA. 

% Of New York ? 

A. This state, which approaches a triangular 
form, with two of the sides curvated inward, is 
separated by an irregular, but measured line, 
from Jersey and Pennsylvania ; on the south 
by a line measured northward from Connecticut, 
Massachusetts, and Vermont ; at the extreme 
north point by the boundary line of Lower Ca- 
nada, till it intersects waters leading from Lake 
Ontario, and along the centre of that lake, to 
Niagara, where the line continues in a south 
direction into Lake Erie, where itends, forming 
a rectangle with the JPennsylvania line ; but ex- 
terior to this boundary Long Island lies a^ong 
the shore of Connecticut, but forming a part of 
New York state, as does Staten Island in the 
bay of New York. 

This state is in a very flourishing condition, 
and improvement encreasing ; the river Hud- 
son, which rises in the ridge of mountains that 
stretch along parrallel to lake Champlain, is one 
of the iinest in the union, and navigable to Al- 
bany, the seat of the state government. The 
city of New York is the most commodious and 
flourishing port in the union. 

The extent of the state from the south to the 
Canada line, is about 350 miles, and the other 
two sides are about the same length, though va- 
rying in breadth near Lakes Erie and Ontario, 
and between Lakes Champlain and Ontario. 

In the mountains called the Highlands, which 
are but a continuation of the great ridge which 
is visible along the continent, the rivers of this 



ARTS AND SCIENCES, 



171 



State and some of those of Pennsylvania have 
their sources ; among these are the Mohawk, 
Hoosac, Battenkill, Black river, &c. Beside 
Lake Champlain, there are several others in the 
state, as the Seneca in the Genessee country. 
The state is divided into thirty two counties : 



Kings, 

Queens, 

Suffolk, 

Richmond, 

York, 

OrangR, 

Oneida, 

Chenat^gO) 

Westchester, 

Dutchess, 

Rockland, 



Ulster, 

Albany, 

Greene, 

St Lawrence, 

Steuben, 

Columbia, 

Renssellaer, 

Sai atoga, 

Washington, 

Clinton, 

Essex, 



Montgomery, 

Delaware, 

Genessee, 

Schoharie^ 

Herkemer, 

OtsegO) 

Onondago, 

Cayuga, 

Ontario, 

Tioga. 



^ Of Connecticut ? 

A. This state is bounded on the east by Lon^ 
Island sound, the other boundaries are artificial ; 
the line east, which is also the boundary of Rhode 
Island, runs directly north from Narraganset, 
to a hne that divides it from Massachusetts, 
which runs from east to west till it intersects the 
line of New York. The extent of this state is 
not quite a degree north and south, the bounda- 
ry between Massachusetts being the 42d degree, 
the extreme south-east point of the state is in 
41 ; while the north-east is three-eighths of a 
degree narrower ; its longitude little more ; 
the eastern boundary about 44 miles long ; the 
western 76 ; the southern 106, and the northern 
80. The country is not so fertile as in the 
southern states, but the people are industrious 
and simple ; there is much hill and dale, and 
the green mountains of Vermont are continued 
into this state. The rivers are the Connecticut, 



172 AN EPITOIME OV THB 

which rises in Canada, and is the only large 
river in the state ; the others are the Pequot^ 
Housatonuc, Shetucket, Tunxis, Naugatuc, Sec. 
The counties in this state are eight : 

Hartford, Middlesex, Windham^ 

New Haven, Litchfield, Toland. 

Vairfield, New London, 

Hartford and New Haven are alternately the 
seat of the government f the others of note are 
New London, Norwich, Middletown, which 
five are denominated cities ; the country is set- 
tled to as great an extent as it appears at pre- 
sent capable of bearing. 

.% Of Rhode Island ? 

A. This state is bounded by Connecticut oh 
the west, by Massachusetts on the north and 
east, and by the Atlantic on the south. The 
eastern and southern sides are irregular, and a 
considerable part of the state consists of islands 
4nd promontories, in the sound which leads up 
to Providence. 

The state is not more than 86 by 35 miles in 
extreme length and breadth, and situated be- 
rw^een 40 and 42^ degrees north latitude. The 
interior is like the neighboring states, hilly and 
a barren soil. The sound or bay of Naragan- 
sett, which is thirty miles in length, affords a 
fine navigation up to Providence. The rivers 
are not numerous nor large, they are the Poca- 
tuck, Wanesguahicket, and some others. 

The state is divided into five counties : 

Newport, Providence, Washington. 

Kent, Bristol, 

The chief towns are Providence and Newport, 
the former the seat of government. 



AUTS AND SCIENCES. 17§^ 



CLASS VIL...LESSON VIL 

^ Of Massachusetts? 

A. This state, exclusive of the district of 
Maine, is about 158 miles long, and by a diago- 
nal line 93 broad at its greatest breadth, and 56 
where narrowest. It is bounded in direct lines 
by Vermont, and New Hampshire, north ; New 
York, west ; and Connecticut south i but on the 
Atlantic side embraces an irregular promontory 
indented with harbors and bays, and several 
islands, as Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, &c. 
Cape Cod and Cape Ann, forming the bay 
called Massachusetts. 

The latitude is between 41 ^ 30* and 42^ 54' 
north, and the extremity is about five degrees 
east of Philadelphia. 

Massachusetts contains twelve counties exclu- 
sive of Maine : 

Suffolk, Hampshire, Dukes, 

Norfolk, Plymouth, Nantucket, 

Essex, Eristol, Worcester, 

Middlesex, Barnstable, Berkshire. 

The mountains are neither numerous nor 
lofty; the rivers are many but not large, they 
are principally the Agasoon.^ Housatonuc, Chick- 
apay, Millers, and Deerfield rivers. The bays 
and islands are numerous and convenient, and. 
from them are formed the hardiest and most en- 
terprising seamen in the world. 

The islands beside those before noticed, are^ 
Naushen, Nashamena, Pasquay, Pinegueese^ 
Heneemissit itnd Catatrunk. 

The capital is Boston, the seatof the govern- 
ment ; there.are numerous oth^r towns alaoy as 
P 2 



174 Ay EPITOME OF THE 

Salem, a flourishing seaport, Plymouth, Newbu- 
ryport, Worcester^ Bedford, Pittsfield, &c. 

i^. Of New Hampshire ? 

A, This state is bounded on the west in its 
whole length by the Connecticut river, w^hich 
separates it from Vermont* On the south it is 
bounded by Massachusetts, separated by a mea- 
sured line from the Connecticut to the great 
btnd of the Merrimack, three miles from 
which along its course continues to be its boun- 
dary to the Atlantic, upon which it has a coast 
of about twenty miles to Piscataquay" harbor, 
that river forming the separating line from 
Maine to its source, and continued thence in a 
direct measured line north to the Canada 
mountains. Its length north and south is about 
160 miles, and its greatest breadth being from 
Portsmouth on the Atlantic to Walpole on the 
western frontier, about 90 miles, and thence 
narrow ing with the Connecticut river to abaut 
■30 miles on the Canada line 

Tlie state is divided.into aix counties : 

Rockmgham, Hillsborough, Grafton, 
Straiifbrd, Cheshire, Coos. 

The chief town is Portsmouth, which is a 
seaport and the seat of government, a very 
prosperous place; besides there are Exeter, Con- 
rord, Amherst, Keene, Walpole, Plymouth, 
Haverhill. 

The countrj' is moimtainous and the highest 
in the northern states, among these theSunapee^ 
and Mooshelock, and the White Mountains, are 
the most elevated and noted. The country is 
like all others that are mountainous, well water- 
ed j and there are some considerable lakes in 



ARTS A^^D SCIET^CES. ±73 

the state, among which are the Umbago, Wini-> 
pipiokee, and Osiapy ; the rivers are beside, the 
Connecticut, Merrimack, and Piscataquay, the 
Sauco, Androscoggin, Contoocook, Amoorioo- 
sac, &c. &c. 

^ Of Vermont ? 

A. This state is separated from Massachusetts 
by a measured line running from the Connecti- 
cut river on the east to the New York line near 
Pownall, where it forms a rectangle to the north- 
ward to Poultney river, whence it proceeds along 
through the centre of Lake Champlain which 
divides it from New York, till it meets the Ca-^ 
nada line in 45 degrees north ; which latitude 
forms the northern boundary of the United 
States and Canada, till it touches the Connecti- 
cut river, which forms the whole of the eastern 
boundary. 

The climate is much superior to the Atlantic 
states in the same latitudes, it being between 42 
and 45^ north ; its length from Massachusetts 
to Canada is about 157 miles ; its greatest breadth 
about 94, audits least breadth about 36^ 

It contains eleven counties. ^.^ 

Bennington, Fratjklin,. Orange, 

Rutland, Orleans, Caledonia, 

Addison, Windham, Essex. ' 

Chittenden, Windsor,. 

This state in the early part of the revolution 
for American independence, was not a part of 
the confederation, but furnished very powerful 
aids and rendered important services to the 
common cause ; the troops of that state were 
called Green Mountain BoySj from a ridge of 
mountains which divides the state in the centre^ 



17^ 42^ EPITOME OF THE 

tlie verdant fertility of which is the origin of the 
name of the state Verjnont. 

The state is well watered ; numerous limpid 
streams fall into the Connecticut, but the largest 
are those which fall into Champlain, as the 
Onion river, Michisou, Noinosky, La Moille, 
Missiskoo, and Poosomac. 

Lake Champlain and Lake Memphremagog 
are divided by the boundary line between Canada 
and this state ; the navigation from this lake 
through the river St. Francis to the St. Law- 
rence, is destined, at no remote period, to open 
a passage for the commercial industry of that 
part of the union into the ocean. 

The principal towms are Rutland and Wind- 
sor, alternately the seat of the state government, 
Westminster, Manchester, New Fane, Burling- 
ton, Vergennes, &c. 

This state is rich in minerals, and the indus- 
try, and entgrprize of the population is prover- 
bial, even among the people of the neighboring 
states. 

In the year 1812, that part of the territory of 
Louisiana, of which New Orleans is the capital, 
is to become a state of the confederation, making 
the eighteenth state. In a few years more the 
Mississippi territory will become a state. 



AKTS AND SCIENCES. ITT 



CLASS yiI....LESSON Ylil. 

OF THE TERRITORIES OR DISTRICTS OF THE 
UNHED STATES. 

ATTACHED to the state of Massachusetts 
and united with its government, is the district 
of Maine, which forms the northern extremity 
of the United States. It is bounded on the 
south by the Atlantic, west by New Hampshire, 
east by Nova Scotia, the line of separation form- 
ed by the river St. Croix, and a line drawn due 
north from its source to the high lands, which, 
separate us on the north from Lower Canada.... 
Maine has six counties ; Washington, Hancock, 
Lincoln, Kennebec, Cumberland, and York... • 
The chief town, Portland. Its extent and po- 
pulation may he seen in the general statistical 
table of the IJnited States, at the end of the geo- 
graphical article. 

2. The territory of Columbia, a district of 10 
miles square, taken from the states of Virginia 
^d Maryland on both sides of the Potoinac ri- 
ver, with the c()nsent of those states, and formed 
into a separate government, of which congress 
has the exclusive jurisdiction ; and it is the seat 
of the government of the confederation. 

The city of Washington is the capital, fourid- 
€d about the year 1 790. In 1 804, the populatioA 
of the district on both sides of the river, was 
about thirty thousand ; comprehending Wash- 
ington city, Georgetown, and the city of Alex- 
andria, five miles distant from Washington. 

3. The Mississippi territory is bounded by 
Georgia and South Carolina on the east^ 
Florida on the south, the district of Orleans or 



178 AK EPITOM* OF TUB 

Lower Louisiana, by the Mississippi on the 
west, and Tennessee on the north. 

4. The Indiana comprehends all the country 
west and south of the states of Ohio and Ken- 
tucky to the banks of the Mississippi, and the 
peninsula of land formed by the lakes Michigan 
and Ontario. It contains territory adequate to 
the formation of five or six additional states, and 
is growing in population. Various tribes of In- 
dians still occupy great portions of Indiana. It 
is under a governor with definite powers. 

^. What of the present state of Louisiana? 

A. It belongs to the United States, having 
been ceded by special treaty concluded at Paris, 
in April 18p3, in full sovereignty. It is, by a 
law of congress, divided into two districts ; the 
Lower, or that next the sea, is called the district 
of Orleans, of which the city of New Orleans 
is the capital, as well as of all Louisiana. This pro- 
vince, by alaw of the 1 1th congress^i? to become a 
state imm.ediately, and a conyention for the 
purpose met in September 1811, at^ New Or- 
leans. The other province is called Upper Lo^i^ 
siana, and is under a governor.... Fhe capital oif 
Upper Louisiana is New Madrid. 

^ What is the extent of Louisiana ? 

A. Its boundaries are not precisely determin- 
ed ; but it is known to be at least as large as the 
whole territory of the United States. 

i^. In what parts are the boundaries undeter- 
mined ? 

A^ On the west or New Mexico side ; the 
presumed extent on the bay of Mexico, from 
the mouth of the Mississippi, is about 300 
miles, some say more ; on the other hand it is 
uDderstood that the cession was made so as to 



AJRTS AND SCIENCES. 179 

make the boundary on the side of the Floridas, 
at the Perdido river, beyond the bay of Mobille. 
On the northern frontier, there is also an uncer- 
tainty ; as our line by the treaty of Paris in 1 783, 
is limited to the 49th degree of north latitude, 
or a line drawn from the Lake of the Woods, 
intersecting that latitude of the Mississippi.... 
and some think the Louisiana extends by the 
sources of the CoUerado river, which falls into 
the gulf of California, along the South Sea, near 
the straits of Don Juan de Fuca. 

^. Has Louisiana many rivers ? 

A. Yes... .the Mississippi and Missouri are 
only inferior to the two great rivers of South 
America in magnitude ; but there are hundreds 
of rivers that fall into them. 

^ What may have been the population of 
Louisiana, when it came into the possession of 
the United States ? 

A. The white inhabitants were about 50,000 ; 
the blacks about 39,000^ independent of the na- 
tive Indians. 

^ Should not Florida be considered as a 
territory of the United States ? 

A. Undoubtedly it must ; but the manner of 
its organization is not definitely fixed ; no more 
can be said than that it is at present subject to 
the same government as the territory of Orleans, 
and that in 1812 it will probably be annexed to 
Orleans state. 



180 AN 'Epitome ot the 

AN EPITOME 

OF THE 

.iRTs AXD scie:s^ces. 



CLASS Vin....LESSON I. 

^ What are the British dominions in North 
America ? 

A. They are Hudson's Bay, Labradore, Up- 
per and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, New 
Brunswick, Cape Breton, Newfoundland, and 
the Bermuda or Summer Islands. 

^. Are these countries settled by civilized 
people ? 

A* Not all of them. ...the countries which sur- 
round Hudson's Bay, parts of which are called 
Labradore, or the country of the Esquimaux, 
new North and South Wales, are bounded on 
the north by unknown lands and seas about the 
north pole, by Canada on the south, the Atlantic 
on the east. Hudson's Bay extends from 52 
north, beyond the arctic circle, and a company 
of English merchants have the exclusive trade 
in furs : they lay claim to all the country north 
of the United States, and in the same latitude to 
the Pacific ocean. There is every reason to 
believe that Greenland, heretofore considered 
as part of Europe, is actually a continuation of 
our continent. 

Lower Canada is about 1200 miles long, by 
330 broad ; and extends on both sides of the 
St. Lawrence river, from the boundary on the 



AKTS AND SCIENCES. 181 

north bank of the St. Francis river, to the 
t)cean : the United States form the soutb boun- 
dary, and New Brunswick the south east. 

Upper Canada has no definite bounds but that 
of the United States line, on the south ; and the 
British set up a claim to all the cotttinent north 
and west by the latitude of 60 north. 

Quebec is the capital of all Canada, and is 
about 320 miles from the Atlantic ; Montreal 
stands on an island 170 miles further up the 
river St. Lawrence, one of the largest rivers in 
North America. Newark is the principal town 
of Upper Canada ; Queenstown is on the Nia- 
gara river, in which the celebrated falls of Nia^ 
gara are. 

The lakes and rivers of Canada are large and 
numerous. 

Nova Scotia, in 1784, was divided into four 
separate governments : 1, New Brunswick, N. 
W. 2, Nova Scotia, S. E. 3, St. John's N. 4, 
Cape Breton N. E. It is separated from the 
United States by the boundary line, fixed at the 
peace of 1763. It abounds with capes, bays, 
and rivers, and is a fine country for fisheries ; 
but the climate is very cold. 

Cape Breton and St, John's with Anti Costi, 
and some others, lie in the gulph of St. Law- 
rence. 

Newfoundland, about 368 miles long, and 240 
broad, lies in latitude 46 to 52, separated from 
Labradore by the straits of Bellisle, and from 
Canada and Nova Scotia, by the straits of St. 
Lawrence. It is celebrated for its fisheries ; 
which employ annually, from 350 to 400 Eng- 
lish vessels, 3000 sail of small craft. Chief pla- 
ces are Placentia, Bonavistay-arid St. John's. 



182 Alf tlPITOME, or THE 



CLASS Vm....LESSON II, 

OF THE WEST INDIES. 

^ GIVE me some account of that part of th^ 
world called the West Indies ? 

A. The first voyage of Cokimbus in search 
of our continent, was made under the expecta- 
tion of reaching the East Indies by a west course 
round the world ; and on his discbvery of the 
first land he called it the West Indies, and all 
America was at first so called ; but at this time 
the name is confined to the numerous islands 
which are found in the great gulph or bay form- 
ed by the promontory of East Florida and Cape 
Orange, near the mouth of the Oronocco river. 

^ How are those islands divided ? 

A, Into the Great Antilles, the Caribbee 
islands, and the little Antilles ; some groupes 
of them are otherwise designated, as those off 
the Florida coast are called the Bahamas or 
Lucayos; those which are nearest South Ame- 
rica are called the Windward, and those to the 
northward oF these are called the Leeward 
Islands ; and another group of them the Virgia 
Islands. 

^ Which are the Great Antilles ? 

A. The principal are Cuba, Jamaica, St. Do- 
mingo, and Porto Rico. The Little Antilles 
compose a group close to the Terra Firma, the 
principal of which are Curasso, Margarite, the 
Tortugas, &c. The Caribbees compose the 
whole range from Trinidad to Porto Rico, the 
principal of which are Antigua, Guadaloupe, 
Martinico, Barbadoes, &c. 



I 



ARTS AND SCIEXCES, 18^3 

^ Are there no other American islands ? 

A. The Bermudas or Summer islands are situ- 
ated in the Atlantic, 900 miles east of Carolina, 
and 3600 west of Greenwich ; there are several 
of them, and in the form of a shepherd's crook. 

There are also the Falkland islands on the 
cast side of South America, but not coloniz- 
ed ; in the South Sea there are the islands of 
Juan Fernandez, the Gallipagos,, and various 
others. 

^ Are there not numerous islands in the 
South Sea ? 

A. The number is beyond present calculation ; 
captain Ingraham, an American, in 1791, disco- 
vered a cluster of islands between 8 and 8| deg. 
south latitude, and longitude from Greenwich 
140, which he called Franklin, Washington, 
Adams, Hancock, Lincoln, Knox, and Federal, 
being seven in number, being each from ten to 
six leagues circuit. 

A vast Archipelago also exists on the north- 
west coast of our continent, between 40 and 60 
degrees north latitude, a^d 235 and 220 west 
longitude from Greenwich ; among which are 
Nootka, Sec. It is presumed that Louisiana ex- 
tends to that archipelago, and an expedition was 
directed by Mr. Jefferson, President of the 
United States in 1 804, for exploring that quarter, 
and executed by captains Lewis and Clarke. 

^. Have you any thing farther to add on the 
elementary parts of geography ? 

A. Yes : in order to judge of the size of any 
country, it would be a good plan to compare the 
several pairts of the world with each other, and 
even when it is wanted to judge of the size of 
any island, nation or state, it may be done by a 



ISi AN EPtTOMi: OF Tll^ 

table of reference, which may be made to con* 
tain the superficial measure of those several 
parts ; thus, if you wish to know the size of the 
ishincl of Jamaica, you first find what is the 
number of square miles; you find it contains 
6000^ you then look for the size of another 
isliind, Sardinia is 6600. 

These two data being obtained, you wish to 
know what proportion they bear to any state or 
part of the United States with which you are 
acquainted ; you find that the state of Dela- 
ware is about 100 miles long by 26 broad, which 
multiplied one by the other gives 2600 square 
miles, or little more than one third of the size 
of Jamaica and Sardinia. 

If you wish to know what relative proportion 
particular countries of Europe, Asia, or Africa, 
hold^to the state of Pennsylvania, I look for 
ilK^ir length and breadth, and find, 

* Pennsylvania about, 465OOO square miles. 
England and Wales, 49,000 
f Ten provinces of Flanders, now 
I united with France, • - 12,968 
J Helvetia, (19 cantons) - - 12,884 
I Batavia, ? ^t? > i ^ . \ 9,540 
Liguria^f ^^^^^^^ departments,) ^^^^^^ 

l^Isiand of Sicily, - - - 9,400 



Total number of square miles, 47,192 

By which I find that Pennsylvania contains 
nearly as much territory as all those celebrated 
states and countries. 

I also find that Pennsylvania is nearly dou- 
ble the extent of Portugal and of Ireland, or 
nearly as large as Portugal and Ireland together. 

TJbat Pennsylvania is as large as one third 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. ±Sv 

of the old French empire, and nearly as large as 
one third of the old German empire. 

I also find that the United States contain 
about 1,480,000 square miles, and exclusive of 
Louisiana, are larger by one third than Euro- 
pean Russia, larger by one third than the 
Turkish empire in Asia and Africa, and larger 
than one third of all Europe ; and that with 
Louisiana, our territory is nearly as large as 
half Europe. 

i^. Maps are of different sizes, and it appears 
that in some maps a square inch will sometime3 
contain a thousand miles, but in others a square 
inch will not contain more than one mile, how 
is the difference to be understood ? 

A. You are right; but if you will observe 
that every map^ contains in some place what is 
called a scale; every map is projected or de- 
signed according to some scale ; thus if a great 
extent is to be brought within a small space, the 
scale is made in proportion ; the map is laid out 
into degrees and minutes; each degree has a 
given number of miles according to the nature 
©f the subject ; but as different countries use 
different measures, as some use leagues of 3 
miles, others use geometrical paces, and some 
give 25 leagues to one degree, others 60 miles, 
and others 69|^ miles ; when there are degrees 
marked, it will be well to consider every degree 
as containing 60^ parts or miles ; take a slip oF 
paper and a pencil, and place it to the scale on 
the map, and mark off the degrees with a pencil 
on the slip af paper, and then divide it intS 
halves, fourths, or tenths, and then number the 
miles on your slip^ ^PP^y ^* ^^ ycur map, and yoii 
will obtain a sufficiently accurate idea of the ex- 
tent^ whatever may be the proportion of the hi^p* 
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18j5 AN EPITOME OP THE 



CLASS Vni...-LESSON IIL 

OF GOVERNMENT. 

^. HOW is the earth divided ? 

A. Into nations, and under various forms <)j^ 
government. 

^ What are the forms of government? 

A. The governments of the world may be 
described either as voluntary, or involuntary..., 
free, or subjected.. ..or into republics, oligarchies, 
and monarchies. 

^ Whence do you derive the word re- 
public ? 

A. From the Latin words res^ affairs... .and 
publica^ public. Respublica^ in its correct sense, 
means a commonwealth^ or a government estab- 
lished by common conseiit for common good* 

^ Republics then, it is to be presumed, are 
the voluntary governments ? 

A. Evidently, such is the meaning of the word 
....but to deceive and enslave mankind, oligar- 
chies, and even despotisms, have been some- 
times called republics : Rome was called a 
republic alike after the expulsion of the Tarquins^ 
and during the tyranny of Augustus and Tibe- 
rius. France was called a republic under the 
committee of safety, the directory, and the consu- 
late. Venice was called a republic, thciUgh the 
government wa3 totally independent of the peo- 
ple. Poland was called a republic, though it was 
governed by a king who was elected by nobles, 
and the people were all slaves. 

^ Are there no governments but republics, 
oligarchies, and monarchies I 



ARTS AXD SCIENCES. ±89 

A. These three general denominations com- 
prehend a numerous variety of other descrip- 
tions, which I shall attempt to enumerate, after 
premising that a government in which all man- 
kind are equal in the view of the law, as they are 
in the eyes of God.. ..where all men can alike 
aspire to honor and trust among their fellow men, 
as they can aspire to Heaven by the practice of 
virtue, is the only true free government.. ..the 
only government that should be called a repub- 
lic...4every other form, w^hatever may be the 
name, if it has not these objects duly secured, is 
an unnatural subjection and enslavement of man- 
kind, repugnant to justice, and to the word of 
God. 

^ What are the other forms of government ? 

A. Our form of government is properly a de- 
i^nocratic republic, as all the governments of the 
United States should be ; the people being the 
sovereign, and the word democracy being derived 
from the Greek words dernos^ the people. ...and 
krateo^ to will or govern. ...that is, the power or 
will of the people operating government for the 
common and mutual good of all. 

Aristocracy is that kind of government in 
which all power and authority is held by a class 
of persons to the exclusion of all the rest ; such 
were the republics of Venice and Genoa, and 
the Batavian republic. Those governments in 
which pecuniary qualification or property is 
requisite to give the right of suffrage, are aristo- 
cratical : some of the state governments are of 
this description. * 

Oligarchy differs from aristocracy only in the 
number of the rulers ; in the latter they are more 
numerous , in oligarchies very few. The great- 



±90 . AN IIIPITOME OF THE 

er part of those governments which go by the 
name of monarchies, &c. are in fact oligarchies ; 
for although there is a king or an emperor, 
he cannot be supposed to do all that the duty of 
government requires ; hence he gives immense 
emoluments and powers to those who assist him 
to keep the rest in subjection. ...and these are in 
fact the oligarchs. 

Some governments in the old world are called 
empires, kingdoms, monarchies, ecclisiastical 
states, electorates, dukedoms, principalities, and 
mixed governments. 

^. What empires exist at present ? 

A. In Asia, there are the empires of China, of 
Japan, as was formerly that of the Great Mogul, 
or empire of Hindustan ; but the power of the. em- 
peror of the latter has ceased, since the British 
under the color of protecting the emperor Sha 
Alhim^ actually usurped his throne and power. 

In Europe there are the empire of all the Rus- 
sias ; the empire of Austria ; the empire of the 
Turks or Ottomans ; and in 1804, the govern* 
ment of France was changed from a consular or 
military republic, to an empire, under the name 
of the empire of the French. 

^. How was the German empire founded ? 

A* The German princes claimed to be the suc- 
cessors of the Roman emperors in the western 
empire, but the imperial title had been in fact 
continued only from Charlemagne, who reigned 
in 800, and whose empire comprehended France, 
Germany, and part of Italy : on his death, the 
empire was divided among his sons. 

^. Whence is derived the appellation.. ..Otto- 
man empire ? 

A. Because its chief, ^descended of Othman, 
reigns in Constantinople, which is in Europe^ 



JL»Td AND SCIEXCES. 191 

tlie seat of the eastern empire : the greater part 
of the Turkish empire is in Asia. 

^ What is to be understood by the distinc- 
tion between the Eastern and Western empires ? 
A. In the decline of the Roman empire at 
the end of the fourth century, the emperor The- 
odosius ordered that the empire should be divid- 
ed between his twx) sons, Arcadius and Hono- 
rius : the first had the eastern, and resided at 
Constantinople ; the second had the western, and 
resided at Rome. The eagle with two heads, 
used by Austria, in its arms, bears a reference to 
the Eastern and Western empires, or two heads 
to one body. 

^. How long has the Russian empire existed ? 
A. Only since the year 1727. Before that 
period the chief was called Tzar or Czar. 
^ What are the ecclesiastical goveraments ; 
A. In Asia the government of Hindustan, in 
remote ages, was an ecclesiastical government 
of a most refined kind, and calculated, if unmo- 
lested, to endure forever. It was first shaken 
by the Mahomedans. The British have com- 
pleted its overthrow. 

^. Was there no ecclesiastical government 
in Europe ? 

A* The Papal government in Europe was of 
that character ; but not so mild nor so minutely 
' organized as the Braminical; the latter admit- 
ted no proselytes, nor persecuted ; the papal 
government, until within a few years, employed 
torture and cruelty to subjugate conscience ; 
perfcecuted those who differed from them, in this 
worldy and damned them in the next.. ..the papal 
power has now ceased ; and the Catholic reli- 
gion divested of temporal power, has become 



192 AX EPITOME or THE 

more consistent with the primitive principles ot 
Christianity. 

^ What was the effect of thfe abuse of the 
papal power ? 

A* The reformation.. ..by which the mild spi- 
rit of the gospel has partly prevailed, though there 
have been many abuses from running to an oppo- 
site extreme; but conscience is no longer tortur- 
ed where the government does not employ reli- 
gion as an engine. 

^ Is there no other ecclesiastical government? 

A, The Delai Lama in Asia only ; excepting 
that some European governments have combin- 
ed with the state an ecclesiastical power for 
political purposes, to the disadvantage and dis- 
grace of the christian faith. 

J^. Which are the kingdoms of the world ? 

A. None beside those of Europe are of much 
note. There are in Europe 13 distinct or sepa- 
rate kingdoms, so called, beside others united 
in one person. They are Portugal, Spain, Sicily, 
Sardinia, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, England ; 
besides the kingdoms of Modern Creation, Ba- 
varia, Saxony, Wirtemberg, Westphalia, Naples, 
and the kingdom of Italy. 

There was a king in Poland, whose authority 
was abrogated in 1793, and his country parti- 
titioned between Prussia, Russia, and the Aus- 
trian emperor. 

Bohemia and Hungary, are both called king^ 
doms, but are united in the person of the Aus- 
trian emperor. 

Ireland was called a kingdom ; but in 1801, 
its parliament was abrogated, and a new system, 
called a union, formed, under the name of the 
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland^ 



IBTS AND SClfilMCfeS. 193 

iTie king of Sardinia, having enabarked in 
the war against France, was deprived of all his 
territory in Piedmont^ and limited to the island 
which gives him his title. 

Holland was converted into a kingdom, and 
so continued for a short time ; but the avarice 
of the merchants in violating the laws, caused it 
to be annexed to France in 1810. 

^ What are the republics ? 

A, I before observed, that there are govern- 
ments which should not be called republics ; but 
which cling to that title, indicating that the peo- 
ple wish for liberty, or that they may be deprived 
of the substance, only by giving them the name. 

^ Let us hear what they are ? 

A. In Asia there is a nation called Seiks, 
which are better entitled to the name of a repub- 
lican government, than most others. They are 
not a learned people, but composed of seceders 
from the Hindu superstition, and profess a libe- 
ral faith in one God. 

The Mahrattah nation had also something of 
the republican character in its general associa- 
tion, though its laws were conformable to the 
Hindu faith. The habits of war have degenerated 
the Mahrattahs into monarchies, which is always 
the effect of war. 

In Europe, the Helvetic republic alone exists. 

^. What are the electorates you mentioned I 

A. These were peculiar to Germany ; they 
had undergone a revolution within a few years ; 
the territory of some of the old electors being 
conquered and incorporated wuth France. 

i^. Which were the old electorates ? 

A. Three ecclesiastical ; 1 , Mentz ; 2, Treves ; 
and 3, Cologne ^ six secular 5 4, Bohemia ; 5, 

R 



19db AN" EPITOME OP THE 

Bavaria ; 6, Saxony 7, Palatinate ; 8, Braderi- 
burg ; 9, Hanover. 

^. Which were the electorates subsequently ? 

A. 1, Bohemia; 2, Bavaria ; 3, Saxony ; 4, 
Brandenburg ; 5, Hanover ; 6, Baden ; 7, Wur- 
temburg ; 8, Hesse Cassel ; 9, Archbishop of 
Ratisbon, 

^ What relation did they bear to the gov- 
ernment ? 

A. They nominally elected the emperor, but 
were themselves sovereigns in their respective 
states. The governmentof Germany, was, there- 
fore, an aristocratical confederation* 

^ In what respects did the princes, dukes, 
and others, differ from emperors and kings ? 

A. In nothing but the title. Under all these 
names, no law prevailed but the will of the king, 
or prince, or duke, or of his immediate advisers, 
which brings them all under the proper charac- 
ter of monarchies or oligarchies. 

^. But what say you to the government of 
England, which is called a monarchy ? 

A. It is sometimes termed a mixed govern- 
ment, because there is a king, an aristocracy, 
and a commonalty, ostensibly concerned, in its 
operations. 

^ And is it not really so ? 

A. In appearance it is so, but in practice the 
government of England is of the oligarchical 
character; the king is but an instrument more 
or less passive in the hands of the oligarchy, or 
the ministers whom they nominate, though at 
times the king is a very influential member : the 
oligarchy is largely composed of the nobility; 
but a number of those called commoners, who 
possess large estates or monied fortune, hold a 



ARTS AND SCIENCfiS. 195 

powerful influence ; the parliament is composed 
of the principals or the creatures of this aristo- 
cracy, while the people are cheated with the 
shew of elections of representatives. 

^. But couid the government go on without 
a king? 

A, That has been repeatedly proved, when 
James II. was expelled; when William III. 
was compelled to make conditions ; but particu- 
larly by the reign of Geo. III. who appears to 
have been in a state of insanity from 1798 to 
1811 ; all the regal functions have been perfor- 
med in the same manner as if he were in perfect 
health ; that is by the privy council or agents of 
the oligarchy. 

^. But how do monarchs and oligarchs 
contrive to rule over whole nations, contrary to 
the interests of those nations ? 

A. When the people are ignorant, TiUt espe- 
cially when they are superstitious, they are easi- 
ly deceived, superstition and deceit therefore 
unite ; the men who deceive to gain power^ 
have an interest in keeping the people ignorant 
and superstitious ; a military force or corruption 
completes human subjection, 

^ There are two other denominaiions of go- 
vernment which I wish explained r* 

A. You mean Laocracy and Ochlocracy ; — 
the former is where all the individuals vote and 
execute the law, and cannot exist but among a 
few people in a city ; the other is the govern- 
ment of a mob, and those who wish to revile 
representative Democracy confound the terms. 
There is yet another.. ..Gync'cr^q/, or a govern- 
ment of women. 



196 Ajy EPITOME OE THE 



CLASS VIIL..XESSON IT. 

OF JURISPRUDENCE. 

ir*^. WHAT is jurisprudence ? 

A. It is the science of law ; the knowlege ol 
the laws, and the administration of justice ac- 
cording to their principles ; derived from the 
Latin words j7is (juris) right, and pnidentici 
Ivnowlege or skill. 

i^ Wherein do we differ in our jurisprudence 
in the United States, from foreign nations? 

A. The principles of our jurisprudence are 
not original, nor such as the general intelligence 
of the nation would seem to call for ; they are 
too complex, too much dependant on precedents 
derived from ages and situations no way analo- 
gous to our country ^ they are uncertain, and 
involved in a technical obscurity, repugnant to 
reason, and subversive of the true ends of 
justice. Our jurisprudence has not yet arrived 
;a that degree of perfection, which would seem 
to be the necessary effect of our excellent sys- 
tem of government. 

.®. Whence does that happen ? 

A. It has arisen from the nature of our origi- 
nal settlement in this country ; from the difficul- 
ty of altering long received habits ; and from 
the influence of interest and prejudice in a great 
measure, which render it preferable to bear the 
partial evil rather than risk what might be worse 
on a change ; but particularly from the general 
deficiency of education. 

^. How do foreign nations distinguish the 
principles of jurisprudence ? 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 197 

^.Nations such as the Mahomcdan and Hindu, 
make their religious codes the bases of their ju- 
risprudence, and their priests are also their law- 
yers. Some nations of Europe have various 
kinds of jurisprudence, applicable to particular 
cases ; they divide it into three branches, the 
law of natural right of nature or the law of 
jtiations, the civil law, and criminal law. 

^. What is the law of nature ? 

A. That which reason and nature have taught 
mankind.. ..such as the power which parents 
possess over children.. ..the right of resistance 
against wanton violence.. ..the right of property 
duly acquired....the right of free will and opi- 
nion on all subjects. 

^ In what does the law of nations consist ? 

A. This law is very vague and contradictory, 
and has ceased to be regarded among nations, 
for it never has been formed into a code, nor 
formally agreed upon by governments : it is 
principally made up of collections of maxims 
from ancient codes, the commentaries and opi- 
nions of learned men published by themselves ; 
and of certain treaties and compacts in which 
several powerful nations have at times concurred, 
such as the treaties of Westphalia, and the arm- 
ed neutrality, all of which have been violated 
by those who had originally concurred in them, 
every powerful nation setting them at naught 
when suitable to its policy. 

^. What is the civil law ? 

A. The words civil law are derived from the 
Latin words, lex^ the law, and civilis^ apper- 
taining to a city or state. Those political regu*» 
lations, which were found, on experience, to be 
necessary to the welfare of a city or state, wepe 
US 



4:98 AN EPlTOMje OF THI^ 

by degrees formed into a code, and were called 
the civil law. There is however a technical mean- 
ing of the terms civil law, applied to the laws 
resorted to in particular courts, in different coun- 
tries, this is the modern civil law, which is but a 
collection of fragments from the written opinions 
of Roman lawyers, compiled from the edicts of 
various Roman emperors ; and which were 
found soon after the revival of letters in Europe 
at Amalfi, a city of Italy, and adopted by various 
nations of Europe. 

^ Are these the only descriptions of the 
civil law ? 

A. No. ...the law peculiar to any country, is 
culled its civil law. Suits or actions at law are 
also called civii or criminal^ according to their 
nature ; civil actions are those which arise 
between individuals on money transactions, or 
any other to which crime is not attached by law ; 
the latter are called criminal actions. The 
municipal law is also part of the civil. 

^. Is the Roman civil law very generally 
t.eceived ? 

A. It is not acknowleged out of Europe, ex- 
cepting only so much as enters into the practice 
of our courts, under the forms of proceeding in 
maritime affairs, and in what is called the com- 
mon law. 

^ It appears tlaat there are several kinds of 
law. ...will you give some account of them ? 

An In Europe generally, there are a variety 
of codes or systems of law... .the greater part 
of which are founded on the civil or Roman 
law. 

In England, to which our law institutions 
bcaT a close analogy.,,. there are the following; 



ARTS AND SGlllNCEs* i9f 

Statute Larv^ or acts of parliament. 

Common LazVy which consists of customs...^ 
precedents of the practice on those customs...* 
opinions of judges or lawyers on those customs 
...•and the decisions in particular cases- 

Civil Lazv^ before described ; but under which 
is often understood as included, 

The Canon or ecciesiMStical law, which is the 
law of the Church, founded on the edicts or 
canons of the popes and councils — of synods and 
fathers of the church. 

MciritiJiie Laxv^ or the law concerning naviga.* 
tion on the high seas. 

1 he Law of treaties. 

There are in several countries laws peculiar 
to each^ such as the Forest iari;.... which relates 
to the preservation of the forests and the chace.... 
there are also Gaine Laxvs^ by which only certain 
privileged persons are allowed to kill wild ani- 
mals or bear arms. 

^. Do our institutions embrace all these kinds 
€)f law ? 

A. No... .but they have all had an Influence oh 
them. ...our statute law, is the constitution of the 
United States, and the laws of congress consis- 
tent therewith ; these, and the law of treaties, are 
called the supreme law of the land. 

Of equal force with these, when not contra- 
dictory to them, are the laws of our several 
states, which are equally^ binding within each 
state, as the laws of congress, but do not bind 
the citizens out of the states in which they are 
law. 

In every state there is a portion of the com- 
mon law, which existed while our states were^ 
colonies of England....but this conunon law 



200 AX EPITOME OF THE 

differs in several states, and what is law in one 
state, is not in another : this is a great evil. 

We have no civil law, nor canon law estab- 
lished under our government, but such as enters 
into the common law of some states, excepting 
only, our maritime law, which is also regulated 
by the statute law. 

Our martial law is also statute law. 

^. What is the character of the civil law ? 

u4. It is considered by professional civilians, 
as the natural law of states ; essential to the 
statesman and negociator ; that modern history 
is unintelligible without it : its spirit is arbitrary : 
at Rome, where it was established, the law of 
persons was the black code of personal slavery ; 
it was subtle and uncertain, and composed of 
good and evil principles : for example of the 
former, by the civil law all property was divid- 
ed equally among the children of both sexes ; 
but in criminal accusations, the accuser and 
accused were never confronted, and the judge 
alone, decided upon the evidence. The Roman 
code presents nothing but sanguinary horrors, 
the iron crown, the bed of torture. 

^ What influence has the form of govern- 
ment upon legislation ? 

A, The principles of the different forms of 
government are seen in the spirit of the laws..^ 
they may be thus arranged : 

Principles ofgvv't. Ckeractenstics. Legislation, 

Monarchy Ignoiance— tbrce Human vengeance. 

A RSI i OCR AC Y...,. Opinion — superstition Revenge. 

Democracy... ...lieasoa — Philosophy.. ....Prevention of crimes: 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 201 



CLASS YIIL...LESSON V. 

OF POLITICS. 

, :x\ WHAT do you mean by the word poli- 
tics ? 

A. It is, in a general sense, the knowlege of 
the whole condition of countries and govern- 
ments ; in a limited sense, it is the knowlege of 
the various interests and circumstances of our 
own country. 

^. Politics, then, would seem to require 
knowlege very extensive and various ? 

A. Assuredly, to a perfect politician no branch 
of human science or art, no species of erudition, 
no experience, can be useless. 

^. What is principally necessary for a politi- 
cian to know ? 

A. First of all, morals and virtue : in a gov- 
ernment like our own, a perfect knowlege of the 
natural and civil history of the several states, 
their geographical situation, extent, natural pro* 
ductions, population, arts, commerce, and pub- 
lic institutions ; the form of each government, 
the variations which subsist between the insti- 
tutions of one state and another ; the changes 
which have been made in public institutions ; 
the spirit of the laws ; the moral and mental 
character of the people ; the degree of attach- 
ment or indifference to their institutions. 

^. In what does general politics differ from 
this, which, though it requires so much know- 
lege, you call limited ? 

A. In this, that after obtaining a due know- 
lege of your own country, you should endeavor 



S02 AN EPITOME OF TME 

to obtain an equally correct knowlege of other 
countries : and of ancient and modern history..,, 
the laws of nations., ..the power, interests, and 
policy of other governments, and the position, 
extent, and productions of other countries ; 
their good and bad laws ; their virtues and 
vices ; their good and bad fortune, and the 
causes of them. 

^ What is the object of the study of poli- 
tics ? 

A, To the citizen of a free state, the principal 
use of political knowlege, is that he may be able 
to contribute his share to the preservation of 
its freedom ; to guard against the ambition of 
foreign nations, and against ambitious men and 
evil institutions at home, by which the peace 
and liberty of his country may be endangered. 

^. Is not the object the same every where ? 

A. Under governments not free, politics is a 
study with which the people have no concern ; 
and the object of those who apply to the study, 
is to qualify themselves for ruling or serving ih 
subordinate stations of such governments. Ill 
states not free, able politicians are generally de- 
nominated statesmen, from their real or pre- 
sumed ability in the government of states. 

^. What are the most important branches of 
practical politics ? 

A. After the due study of history, by which 
a knowlege is obtained of the circumstances of 
nations, ancient and modern, what should be 
first principally considered is called statistics. 

1. The topography of the country. 

2. The number of cities, towns, and the pro- 
portion of cultivated land to the uncviltivated 
fei;»d to the population. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 203 

5. The numbers of the population, wTiich is 
i}\t strength of the nation* 

4. The progression of that population, the 
marriages, births and deaths. 

5. The amount or produce of agriculture and 
husbandry. 

6. Manufacture* and useful arts. 

7. The exports to foreign countries. 

8. The imports, and the proportion which each 
bear to the other. 

9. The finances of the country ; of what the 
revenue consists... .direct taxes or impost ; the 
expenditures, whether frugal or extravagant. 

10. Monied institutions.. ..foreign exchanges. 

11. Of the weights and measures. ...coins as 
a measure of value. 

12. Roads, canals, bridges. 

12. The seminaries of education. 

14. The militia.. ..the mercenary army.»..the 
navy. 

15. The courts of law, whether organised in 
tlie best manner, or are there any abuses in the 
administration. 

16. The manners and morals of the people. 
^. Are not these various objects comprehend- 
ed under the denomination of political economy? 

J. They are....and the able politician, besides a 
due acquaintance with all these circumstances of 
his own country and of others, must obtain a 
perfect acquaintance with the derivation of 
many institutions that now exist in society, un-* 
der different modifications ; he must make him- 
self acquainted with the civil and maritime laws 
of other countries: their negociations, embas- 
sies, wars, treaties and alliances. 

^. Is not the spirit of party a very important 
part of political study ? 



204 AN EPITOME OF TlltJ 

A. iTiis has been referred to already, in notic- 
ing one of the objects of policy to be to guard 
against ambition ; the spirit of party, always 
arises from one or other of these causes.. ..lust 
of power....personal ambition. ...envy of rivals.... 
avarice. ...or corruption. ...and is common to all 
forms of government ; the autocracy of Russia 
^s well as the democracy of William Penn. 

^. Is not this contrary to the received 
opinion, that party is known only to free govern- 
ments ? 

A. It is contrary to a very frequently asserted 
opinion ; but nevertheless it is true. In monar- 
chies, the spirit of party is limited to the cour- 
tiers, those who are at the head of various de- 
partments, such as those of the state, of the ar- 
my, and of the courts of law ; and it is conducted 
by every species of treachery and intrigue ; it 
acts unseen, and is directed to abject servility 
and flattery of the chief ruler, whether emperor, 
king, or general ; but in free governments, 
while intrigue is not absent, it acts more openly 
upon public opinion, by eloquence, by factious 
combinations, by employing the press to disse- 
minate truth, or by perverting it from its pure 
purposes* 

i^. But how does it act in aristocracies ? 

A. There it prevails secretly among the rivals ; 
each seeking to engross to himself the predomi- 
nating influence ; but in neither have the people 
either weight or interest. 

^. But has not the evil equal scope in popular 
governments ? 

A. By no means ; in republics the spirit of paf- 
ty has too large a surface to be often acted upon in 
secret, or by direct corruption ; and those who 
se^k power or favor from the people, are com- 



ATITS AND seiENCiCS. 2D 5 

pelled to pursue the paths of virtue, and to es- 
tablish a reputation lor morality and integrity ^ 
so that popular government in tliis important 
point is superior to all others, that no other 
holds out rewards to real virtue ; while popular 
government makes virtue the fir^t consideration 
in the choice of its agents. 

^. But will history sustain this opinion ? 

A. All history supports it ; the history of the 
reign of Louis XIV. and XV. of France, and 
of George III. of England, prove it. Under 
both the Louis's concubines and cardinals were 
the leaders of party; the courtezan governed 
the king by sensuality; the cardinal by flattery; 
and as^ither passion predominated, the party 
of the priest or the prostitute prevailed. The 
banishment of the protescants, the alliance o| 
France with Austria in 1756, and the desola- 
tion of the Palatinate, were the effects of such 
party spirit in that court ; and it was the ascen- 
dancy of the royal mistress, which in each case 
decided the question; on one side was ranged 
by accident the clergy, the nobility, the king's 
wife, the principles of humanity, and the in- 
terests of the people ; on the other side the 
king's concuhine and her party, and they pre- 
vailed. 

^. From what authority do you derive your 
opinions on the spirit of party in the English go- 
vernment ? 

A. From many.. ..but particularly from Dod- 
dington's Diary.. ..Chesterfield's letters.. .and 
Oldfield's history of the boroughs ; all authen- 
tic w^rks. 

^. But was there any thing like this in ancient 
times ? 



^06 AN EPITOME OF THE 

A. Yes; In dl times; in Roman and Grecian 
history as well as in modern ; the<iracchi who 
were the vindicators of the rights of the poor 
citizens, were destroyed by the avarice and 
vengeance of the Patricians ; after the death of 
Alexander of Macedon, his generals, actuated 
by the spirit of party, divided against and des- 
troyed each other ; while iii Athens the spirit 
of party was that of competition ; never did 
sects discover less turbulence or animosity, nor 
neighbors fewer jealousies ; an avenue of lime 
trees, or a thicket of myrtles, separated the do- 
minions of rival systems, and served as bounda- 
ries ior the empire of opinion. It is true they 
committed great crimes, they banished the most 
virtuous men, as Arlstides and Cimon ; and 
murdered some of their greatest benefactors, as 
Socrati s and JViiltiades. 

\^. Is not the spirit of party considered by 
some as necessary in free government i 

J. Some celebrated men have so considered 
it. Beccariasays that '^ in every human socie- 
*^ tjr there is an effort continuaiiy tending to 
^' confer on one part the height of power and 
'^ happiness, and to reduce the other to the ex- 
"' treme of weakness and misery^.-it would 
seem that the spirit of party must necessarily 
preserve the medium. 



AKTS ANP SCIENCES. 207 



CLASS VIIL...LESSON V. 

OF METAPHYSICS. 

^ WHAT do you'understand by the blanch 
f)f philosophy called metaphysics ? 

A. A science sublime and more difficult than 
physics or natural philosophy. 

^ In what do they differ ? 

A. Physics treat of things natural, or which 
are perceptible to the senses, and of which you 
can judge by experience, and by examination. 

Metaphysics comprehend all that is abstract, 
and of which the reason can determine only by 
reasoning or analogy. Metaphysics are inde^ 
pendent of material things, the senses can have 
no experience of them, but by reference to sen- 
sible things. ...thus theology, or the study of 
God, angels, and spiritual things (separate from 
the holy scriptures) is a part of metaphysics ; 
the opinion that the moon and other planets are 
inhabited like our world, is a metaphysical 
opinion. 

©F THEOLOGY. 

^. What is meant by Theology ? 

Am It is the knowlege or study of the nature 
and the attributes of God ; from the Greek 
words CTheosJ God^ and (logos) word ox des- 
cription. 

^. How is this study conducted ? 

A. Theology is of three kinds; 1, Intellectual, 
or as it relates to the perceptions and reasoning 
of man; 2, Natural, or as it relates to the visi- 
ble creation, and the beauty, order, and harmony 
of his works; 3. As it relates to man in hispre- 
(5ent and future state, and this is called religion. 



-08 AX XJPFrOME OF THE 

OF REUGION. 

" Be paitTcuhir not to neglect religion in (he education of roin= 
*"* ehiidren. Jn vain will you endcinor to coiiduct lliem by anoiher 
*' {)alh. M theii are dear to you, il yon expect Jrrm tlum creilit 
*' iiiid co7uf(.rty fiom religion iiiU.st be derived their happiness and 
''your own"' taiher Gt^RDiL. 

Religion! soother of all our keenest sorrows, 
source and refiner of all our real joys ! shed 
thy heavenly influence on our souls ; direct, ani- 
mate, and crown all our pursuits ; pervade and 
consecrate all our thoughts, Mords, and actions ; 
or we can never answer the design of God in 
our creation ; w^e fall short of true happiness in 
vliis life, and we sink to the completest wretch- 
edness in that which is to come. 

A* What is religion ? 

^. A worship rendered to the Divine Being, 
alter that manner we conceive to be most agree- 
able to his will, that so we may procure his favor 
and blessing, and avoid his displeasure. 

^. Is religion universally practised and the 
same every where ? 

A. Man is said to be a religious animal, be- 
'. ause his faculties enable him to see and wonder 
at his existence, and to adore the creator; but in 
(liflererit ways in various countries, though all 
men adore the God who is our creator, their re- 
iigion or mode of adoration differs in form, and 
Vn some important practices and precepts. 

i^. Whence has this difference arisen ? 

A* From rgnoranceand superstition. 

^ What is superstition ? 

A. It is zeal acting wrong under the belief of 
acting right. 

^. How do you discriminate religions ? 

A. Into true and false, or pure and coi*. 
rupted. 



AKTS AND SCIEN^CES. 209 

^ What is true religion ? 

A. It admits of two divisions..., 1. The reli- 
gion of nature.. ..2. Revealed religion. 

^ What is natural religion ? 

A. That reverence and love which springs 
spontaneously in our bosoms, upon viewing the 
glory of God in his works in the heavens and 
on the earth, and on the waters, and in the facul- 
ties with which he has endowed us. 

^. What is revealed religion ? 

A. It is that which is contained in the Old and 
the New Testaments, and is divided into two 
parts, the Jewish and the Christian dispensa- 
tions. 

^ What is the Jewish dispensation ? 

A. The law given by Moses to the tribes of 
Israel, and to be found in the Old Testament. 

^ What is the Christian dispensation ? 

A* That which is delivered in the New Tes- 
li\ment, by Jesus Christ and his apostles. 

^. Is the religion of Christ distinguished in, 
any manner above others? 

A* it is, by the benignity and parity of its 
precepts,. ..by its inculcation of patience, tempe- 
rance, fortitude, and justice. ...by teaching man- 
kind that virtue alone is acceptable to God, and 
that the lowliest of his creatures may aspire by 
virtue to equal glory and bliss in Heaven, with 
the loftiest and the most powerful of this earth ; 
but above all other things it is distinguished by 
this precept: '* do unto others as thou woudst 
be done unto." It forbids war, and inculclates 
charity towards all mankind. 

S^ W hat do you call corrupted religion ? 

A. The greater portion of mankind are at pr^- 
^ent under the infiuence of impure rtligioD^ 
b2 



210 AN JIPITOME. OF THE 

%vhich iM of various kinds. The most extensive 
of these is the religion of Mahomed, which pre- 
vails most in Asia and part of Africa ; the religion 
of the Hindus or Bramins, which is believed to 
be the foundation of the Grecian and Egyptian 
mythology; the religion of Fohi in China, and 
Bhuda in the Birman, Malay, and Siam em- 
pires^ 

^. Are not these generally culled by some 
other names ? 

A. Yes ; it has been too much the custom, 
4:ontrary to the charitable spirit of the Chris- 
tian religion, to call those who w^ere in error, 
idolaters and pagans, and other injurious names,, 
and to treat them with that contempt *vhich is 
only due to fanaticism and intolerance. 

^. Whence is the Mahomedan religion de- 
rived ? 

A, From an Arabian shepherd, who in the 
seventh century of the Christian era, set him- 
self up as a prophet, and declared that he was 
I he person promised to be the foUov/er of Jesus 
Christ. 

i?^ What was his doctrine ? 

jh It was a compound of the Jewish and Asi- 
atic religions, with some of the abused princi- 
ples or heresies of the early Christian Church, 
and a great number of sensual inventions of hi& 
^wn ; which were combined in a book called 
J I Koran or the Korari^ 

^^ Does this religion flourish ? 
; A. By no means. ...like all other religions it 
has undergone many changes, according to the 
interests or passions of designing men ; it has 
been split into sects, each t)f which made war 
upon the other, massacred, burnt, and put to 



ABT^ AND SCIENCES, 211 

the torture, the people of whole regions, only 
for disputing some futile dogma ; but it has 
lately suffered a great shock from the Waha-^ 
bies. 

^ What of these ? 

A, Abdul Wahab, an Arabian adventurer, set 
up a new sect about the year 1780, and made 
numerous proselytes ; he took Mecca by storm 
in 1804, and his successor continues to prevail. 

^. What of the other religions of Asia ? 

A. These are not to be described in so small 
a book.^ 

^. Of what advantage is an exact observance 
of religion ? 

A. It inspires honesty, virtue, and charity ; it 
renders those who obey its principles happy and 
respected by their neighbors ; and it blesses 
families and nations when it is faithfully ob- 
served. 

^. Is not religion sometimes abused ? 

A. Religion is in some parts of the* world 
perverted to the worst of purposes. ...under the 
name of religion, wars, cruelties, and the most 
atrocious crimes have been perpetrated ; and its 
narne has been employed, combined with that of 
the state, to corrupt and perpetuate the miseryt 
instead of promoting the happiness, of man- 
kind. It is too frequently made a cloak for 
the worst vices. 

^. What is most pernicious to religion ? 

A. The blending of religion with politics, 
using it for avaricious purposes, for persecution, 
or to aid ambition. Religion is always abused 
and the people wicked,, when th'C government 
meddles with religion. 



3i^ AN EPITOME OF TBLE 



CLASS VIIL..XESSON VI, 

OF MYTHOLOGY. 

^ What do you understand by mythology f 

A^ The mystical theology, which being inter- 
woven with ancient history is essential to educa- 
tion, it being inseparable from a knowlege of clas- 
sical learning, poetry, painting, sculpture, and 
even with the chronology of nations. 

^. Whence has it been derived ? 

A* It is more than probable that it was deriv- 
ed from Asia, as the correspondence between 
the Asiatic superstitious mythology are too 
much alike and particular to be derived from 
different sources. 

^. You suppose then, that it was not an 
invention of the Greek or the Roman poets ? 

A. With deference to long received opinions, 
I do not believe the mythology of the Greeks 
and Romans originated with the Greeks or 
Romans, though they certainly amplified the 
scope of the system, and enlarged the number of 
the imaginary divinities. 

^. Whence do you suppose it derived,^ and: 
why i 

A* I believe it originated in Asia, and that it 
is in iact only such a variation of the religious 
system of the Hindus, as w^ould arise from the 
passage of such a system from one nation to an- 
other, and into others successively. My reason 
for believing this is, that not only the attributes 
ef those whom the Greeks and Romans called 
their gods, agree with those of the Hindus, but 
there is a chronological correspondence, and an 



ARTS AXD SCIENCES* 213 

astronomical, but that its existence has been 
ascertained to have been for several thousand 
years before the Greek or Roman nations had a 
name. 

^ Then the mythology is the religious sys- 
tem of the ancients ? 

A» It is, and had its origin in a pure theism, 
which was innocent, perhaps virtuous, as every 
attribute of the divinity was adored, instead 
of God the creator of all ; thus the attributes, 
came in time to be worshipped as separate divi- 
nities ; the priesthood had an interest in mul- 
tiplying the number of gods, and the system was 
convenient for the poets, and as they have been 
the most delightful recorders of the mythology, 
they have been held to be the inventors. 

^. In what particulars do the As^iatic and the 
Grecian mythology agree ? 

A. Their system exactly corresponds with 
that of Hesiod, who in his book on the origin 
of the Gods, describes Chaos as preceding 
Creation ; that the elements of Chaos being 
s^^parated, the universe arose into being and 
form. Thus fire, air, light, earth, and water, 
assumed the order adapted to their nature. 

The omniSc word bad " discord end" 

And Chaos heard his voice : and in bis hand 

lie took the Golden compasses, prepared 

I'o circumscribe the universe sublime, 

One foot he centerd, and the other turnM 

Kound the vast profLmdity obscure, 

And said ...this be thy circumference, O world ^ 

w Angelic harmonies resounded ; 

'j"he Heavens and all the constellations i^ung; 
The planets in their stations Ustening stoodj 
"VN'hiie the hrii»ht chorus ascended jubilant. 



21* 



AN EPITOMl!: or THE 



Ovid's metamorphoses contain the same the- 
ory as that of Hesiod ; which exactly corvres- 
pond with the mythology of tjle Bramins ; the 
names only differing ; but the meaning of the 
terms agreeing. 

^. Give me a few examples ? 

A. I will give you one which shews a further 
remarkable coincidence ; not only do the attri- 
butes of the Hindu and the Greek and the 
Roman mythology agree, but the days of their 
weeks are named as ours are, after gods whose 
attributes are the same. 



English. 


Latin. 


Sanscrit. 


Meaning. 


Sutiday 


Dies SoUs 


Oudeetee ? 
Rebbee S 


ihe Sun day. 


Monday 


Dies Lunae 


Some war 


Moon day. 


Tuesday 


Dies Martis 


Mungul war 


Mars day. 


Wednesday. 


Dies ^lercuri 


Boodhee war 


Mercury day. 


Thursday 


Dies Jovis 


Bruspeeter war 


Ju; iter day. 


Friday 


Dies Veneris 


Shookre war 


Venus day. 


Saturday 


Dies Saturni 


Schenischer war 


*Saturn day. 



^ This is a remarkable correspondence.. •• 
does it extend throughout ? 

A. Most minutely, and even to the signs of the 
zodiac, and the forms of the constellations ; and 
ev^n to the four ages of the world. 



ARTS AIS^D 3CrR?9CliS. 215 



CLASS Vin....LESSON VII. 

OF MYTHOLOGY. 

^. GIVE me some account of the agreement 
between the Grecian and Hindu mythology, 
mentioned in the preceding lesson i 

A, The mythology of the Greeks divides time 
into four ages, which were descriptive of the 
state of mankind at the several periods. 

1. The Golden Age. ...or age of innocence 
and happiness. 

2. The Silver Age... .or age of cjegeneracy 
and vice. 

3. The Brazen Age. ...when man became 
wicked. 

4. The Iron Age. ...when man became wholly 
corrupt. 

So the Hindus have their four ages ; whicfh. 
their fabulous mythology thus describes.... 

1. Suttee Jogue, or the age of purity....which 
' lasted they say, 3,200,000 years....when the life 

of man was 100,000 years..».and his stature 31 
cubits high. 

2. Tirtah Jogue....when men became half 
reprobate.-.. .this lasted 2/i00,000 years.. ..man's 
life 10,000. 

3. D wappaar Jogue....half mankind vicious.... 
1,600,000 years. ...human life 1000 years. 

4. CoUee Jogue....the iron age, when all men 
were corrupt....duration 400,000.. ..man's life 
100 years. They say only 5507 years of this 
^ge is yet past, in 1811. 

^ There is a strong resemblance....but how 
came the atti ibutes of the true God to be multi- 
plied into separate divinities ? 



I 



216 AT? EPITOME OF THE 

A. It was verj' natural for men, before scien- 
ces were discovered, to worship by the impulse 
of feeling : some of our American Indians wor- 
ship the sun and moon, as first causes ; they 
jtonsider thunder, snow, and rain, as coming 
from separate sources, and their feelings towards 
each, are mere sensations ; the sun produces 
grateful feelings ; and it becomes a god of beni- 
ficence ; the moon is tranquil, and at night favors 
the huntsman,.. .as Luna, she is the Goddess of 
hunters ; thunder always excites astonishment ; 
and sometimes destroys.. ..it becomes either 
Jupiter or Mars ; and thus every sensation aris- 
ing from external causes, creates a new divinity. 
The winds blow with anger from the north.... it 
is Boreas ; the fields are covered with the har- 
vest... .it is the gift of Ceres ; the trees are load- 
ed with fruit... .they are furnished by Pomona ; 
the ardent heats of the summer are tempered by 
the western breeze... .it is Zephyrus ; the rivu- 
lets and rills murmar....they are the sighs of the 
Naiads ; the flowers are sprinkled with dew.... 
they are the tears of Aurora ; and thus all crea- 
tion is personified into countless deities, "and the 
earth and waters, the air and infernal regions, 
have their several divinities. 

^ It was necessary to be informed of the 
origin of the mythology ; please now to proceed 
with the particulars ? 

A. The Greeks divided their gods into six 
classes. 1, the celestial; 2, terrestrial ; 3, ma- 
rine ; 4, infernal ; 5, subordinate ; 6, demigods. 

^. Where do we find them described ? 

A. According to Hesiod, who lived 907 years 
before Christ, in his book called the Theogony^ 
St account of the Gods, man was formed out of 



ARTS AN^D SCHiNCES. 217' 

tampered clay, by Prometheus, the son of Japcr 
tus, who having stolen fire from heaven, ani* 
mated the form he had made. Now the same 
Theogony says Japetus was the squ of C<clu9 
and Terra. 

^ Who were Coelus and Terra ? 
A. Their names are literally Hea^oen and 
£ar^A.—who, in the allegorical system of mytho- 
logy, being created by the same parent, were 
brother and sister; they are represented as 
having seven children, of whom one was Saturn; 
thereby meaning the seven days of the week. 

^. Have Ccelus and Terra any other attri- 
butes or names ? 

A. Coelus is also called Titan ; and Terra is 
called the mother of the Gods, and was wor- 
shipped under the names and attributes of Cybele, 
Rhea, Ops, Pales, Vesta, and Berycinthia, she 
was said to be skilful in physic, because the earth 
produced herbs, and she presided over cultiva- 
tion. 

^. What is the history of Saturn ? 
A. He is the god of Time^ it is to be supposed, 
because time commenced vv^ith creation ; he ]s 
represented as an old man, holding a snake with 
its tail in its mouth, a symbolical circle, signijfi- 
»ant of eternity, or that time has no end, and the 
tail being in the mouth, that time devours itself; 
in his right hand he holds a scythe, significant 
that he mows down all things ; he is also repre- 
sented as devouring his ov/n children, the days 
and hours, that is time ; the Hindus have given 
him the last day of the week on that account. 
He is also represented as having married his 
sister Ops, by whom he had Jupiter, Ceres, 
Juno, Pluto, and Neptune. 
^ Was Ops a goddess ? 



'218 AN EPITOME OF THE 

A. Yes. ...in Rome called Rhea, in Greece 
Ops. She is represented as a matron, holding 
forth her right hand to aid the helpless ; and in 
her left a loaf of bread : she had various other 
names and attributes, which will be noticed 
when we talk of Cybele. 

^ What is the history of Jupiter ? 

A. He is represented as the twin brother of 
Juno ; because Jupiter is the personification of 
thunder and the meteors which amaze mankind ; 
Juno represents the air ; hence Jupiter, or thun- 
der, is called her husband. He is painted with 
a thunder-bolt in his hand, and beside him an. 
eagle ; and she in a chariot drawn by peacocks. 
Jupiter, from his incomprehensible power, the 
ancients considered as the greatest of the gods ; 
he is said to have divided the world between 
himself and brothers ; his sister-wife^ retaining 
her province, the air : Neptune had the sea, and 
Pluto the infernal regions ,* reserving for himself 
heaven and earth. He had various names, in 
various countries ; in Greece he was called 
Jupiter Ammxon, (which signifies sandy ;) in 
Babylon, Belus ; Osiris, in Egypt ; in Rome, 
Capitolinus, and Optimus Maximus; among 
the Cretans and Campanians, Diespiter ; be- 
tween which, and his Hindu name, Brehespeeter^ 
there is an apparent resemblance. The wars of the 
Titans and of the Giants of fabulous history, 
are said to have been waged against Jupiter.... 
He is said to be the father of the Seasons, Irene 
and Eunomia ; of the Fates, Clotho, Lachesis, 
and Atropos ; of Apollo and Diana by Latona ; 
of Venus, by Dione ; of the Graces, Aglaia, 
Euphrosyne, and Thalia, by Eurinome ; of 
Prospeiine, by Styx; of the nine Muses by 



218 




JUPITER. 




APOLLO. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 219 

Mnemosyne, &c. His statue by the Cretans, was 
without ^ars, significant of his candor : at Lace- 
demon he had four heads, which his statues 
this day bear aiiong the Hindus. Minerva, 
or Wisdom, is said to have come armed from 
his forehead into the world. 

^ Who is Apollo ? 

A» He is the God of Physic, of Poetry, Music, 
Eloquence, and all the fine arts ; he was the Orus 
of the Egyptians, and the Audeetye of the 
Hindus. He is represented as the son of Latona 
of the country of the Hyperboreans ; and is 
called Sol, or the Sun, Phcebus, Hyperion, P^an, 
Delphicus, from his temple at Delphi ; Mithra 
by the Persians and modern Parsees or worship- 
pers of fire ; No'mius, from his giving laws to 
the Arcadians ; in heaven he was called Sol ; on 
earth. Liber Pater ; in hell, Apollo. He had 
temples at Delphi, Delos, Claros, &c. He is 
usually painted as a beardless young man, wuth 
flowing hair of golden color, and V/ith a harp, a 
shield and arrows, significant of his attributes, 
harmony in heaven, protection on earth, and 
punishment in hell. The name of his mother 
Latona, is derived from the Greek flanthano^ 
to be hid;) because before the birth of Apollo 
I (the sun) and Diana (the moon) all things were 
! hidden in darkness. 



'220 A>' BriTOME OF TitE 

Cl^VSS Ym....LESSON IX. 

MYTHOLOGY. 

a. WHO is Neptune ? 

A. The brother of Jupiter and Pluto ; he is 
described with a trident, and is drawn bv marine 
animals in a cha. iot formed of a sea shell. The 
Greeks called him Poseidon, and the Hindus 
Shuli ; the chariot of the Indian Neptune is a 
kaf of the Lotus flower,, which grows only m 
w?ter. The power of Neptune rtctends over all 
-.vaters, iind at his presence the sea becomes calm 

'*"^"wEs the mythology of Pluto, the other 

brother of Jupiter ? ^ , , • • 

A. He presides over the infernal dominions ; 

t>,e Greeks called him Hades ; the Hindus Shra- 
deva ', his attributes are the same m those seye- 
^"1 nations. He presided over funerals, and the 
Im-ention of funeral obsequies are attributed to 
him; his name, (Pluto) is derived from the 
earth, from which all things spring, and to which 
they ^gain return ; Hades likewise, means dark^ 
Jloomv; and Shradeva is the god of sorrow ^ 
tl SL^nsolation and tears ; he is called Or.us 3 
because he follows in the rear of arm.es. The 
tl^nder which happens at night is attnbuted to 
him ; whence he is called the infernal or St> gi- 
an Jupiter. jl 

©. Who was Mars f , i • »J;| 

7 The son of Juno, whom the mythologist* 
sw she conceived without Jupiter, m envy of 
Srsinglv producing Minerva. His name is 
lorn '"«..r', warlike; the Greeks called h.,n 



220 




NEPTUNE. 




PLUTO. 



I 



221 




MARS. 




YULCAX. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES, 221 

Ares^ from the destruction of war ; the Hindus, 
Kartzguna and Seanda^ or the leader of the ce- 
lestial armies. He had a sister called Bellona, 
who is also called the goddess of war. He was 
represented on foot in armor ; and when in a 
chariot he was drawn by two hof ses called Flight 
and Terror; Discord leads the way in front ; 
Clamor and Outrage follow in the rear ; his cha- 
riot is driven by Bellona, who lashes the horses 
w^th a torch ; and he holds in either hand a jave- 
lin and a sword. 

^. What is the mythology of Vulcan ? 

A. This god though reduced, by the freedgm 
Vv'hich men take even with the gods, to a secon- 
dary rank, was in the early stages of mythology 
a deitvof the first order.r He was the Phita of 
the Egyptians, which the Greeks expressed 
Ephiastos, and the Romans Vulcan ; he is the 
same as the Hindu god Viswarearma^ who like 
the Greek God was rediuced to the rank of a 
mere mechanical God. The true origin of Vul- 
can was the same as that of Jupiter, he repre- 
sented fire or heat, one of the most active prin- 
ciples of nature, by which the world has been, 
enriched with the works of genius and art. He 
erected the palace of the immortal Gods, and 
forged the weapon, of Jupiter, the symbol of 
omnipotence ; he is represented as a deformed 
lame old man, occupied in a forge, with along 
beard, a round blue cap or tonsure on his head. 
He is called also Mulciber , he was the father 
of Cupid by Venus, of Cacus, aad of Cecrops.. 
His forge was supposed to be under Mount 
Etna, and the Cyclops his workmen ; he forged 
the shield of Achilles, the collar of Hermione, 
smd the sceptre of Agamemnon ; to him is atr 
T 2 



:Z22 AS EFlTOMJa i)¥ Tll£ 

tributed the manufacture of Pandora^s Box* 
He was betrothed to Minerva, but she rejtxted 
him ; he was married to Venus. 

^ Give me some account of Venus and the 
rest of the family of love ? 

A. Venus, Cupid, Hymen and the Graces..., 
Matter modified in its most beautiful form was 
called Venus ; the most exquisite emotions are 
excited by her presence ; she displays her cestus 
....she disarms the god of war, dissipates storms, 
and arrests even thunder ; at her appearance the 
earth becom.es calm, and multitudes of beings 
yield to her influence and propagate their kind. 
Cupid or Love was held to be her son, though 
he accompanied her-from her birth ; the Graces 
or Charities are her attendants. ...Aglaia, from 
her virtue and cheerfulness, Thalia from her 
perpetual bloom of youth, and Euphrosyne 
from her liberality and vivacity. Cupid is re- 
presented as a boy void of experience, naked be- 
cause love has nothing of his own, blind because 
love cannot see faults. Hymen presides over 
marriage, is a young man crowned with sweet 
marjoram and roses, denoting that marriage 
should be early ; in one hand he carries a torch, 
indicating the purity of connubial love, and in 
the other a flame colored veil, representing the 
blushes of modesty. Cupid was called Eros^ 
by the Greeks, and Manmadin by the Hindus, 
by whom Venus was callen Bhavani and Kha- 
rnadeva. 



^90 




VENUS. 



■^1 




ff/^y.:^ 



^"^^-^J*^^ 




MBKCUKY, 



ARTS AND SCIExXCBS, ^^S 



CLASS VI1I....LESS0N X- 

OF MYTHOLOGY. 

^. PROCEED with your account.. ..Who h 
Mercury ? 

A. The history of this God shews how subtle 
is the allegorical mythology of the ancients ; his 
parents were Jupiter and Maia ; he is the mes- 
senger of the Gods^ the patron of travellers, 
orators, merchants, and thieves; his name is de- 
rived a Mercibus ; he is the Hermes of the 
Greeks; the Na red and Bhudda of the Himdus, 
who attribute to him the invention of writing, 
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy. The allego- 
rical divinity of Mercury is to be traced into his 
attributes, and arc various. The use of speech 
must have preceded society. When letters 
were discovered, they must have excited great 
reverence for the inventor. The divisions of 
the ground among families gave rise to geome- 
try, which being written was naturally attribut- 
ed to the same author. The study of the stars 
had a similar reference. His attire the winged 
cap, or petasus, the wings or talari to his feet, 
indicate the rapidity of the mind, and that 
writing superceded oral communication at im- 
mense distances ; his caduceus is the symbol of 
astronomy, the rod represents the equator, the 
two serpents the oblique progress of the suu in 
the ecliptic. He was called Thot by the Egyp- 
tians, and on the pedestal of his statue was 
written the number 36,525, understood to refer 
to the Egyptian year which consisted originally 
of 360 days; they attributed to Thot> or 



^2^ AN EMTOMii OF TMJB 

Mercury, the addition of five intercalary days, 
and one-fourth of a day, as thus expressed deci- 
mally 365.25. He is also the God of the Che- 
mists, as he detected the secret operations of 
nature ? 

^ Who is Bacchus ? 

A, He is called the son of Jupiter by Semele, 
daughter of Cadmus ; the story is perplexed and 
obscured by contradictory accounts given of him. 
He is the Osiris of the Egyptians, and the Sri 
Rhama^ and Bhagvat of the Hindus. While 
Ceres taught the cultivation of grain, Bacchus 
taught that of the vine ; he fostered the manners 
of a rude people, which is signified by the lions 
and tigers which he has tamed to draw his cha- 
riot. Bacchus is said to have been torn to pie- 
ces, which only represents the art of the vintage ; 
he is crowned with grapes, and is attended by 
noisy worshippers, to indicate the joys of the 
season and the riches of the harvest; old 
Silenus follows in his train intoxicated, the 
same Silenus who was reckoned in the number 
of the wise men; who awakened from the in- 
toxication of ignorance, chaunted in sublime 
strains the formation of the world. This ac- 
count corresponds with the Hindu Bacchus or 
Bhagvat. He is by the Romans and moderns 
made the deity of drunkards, and is drawn as a 
man with two faces, one old and the other young, 
because wine taken in excess brings on decrepi- 
tude, taken in moderation invigorates and pre- 
serves the health. 

, The jolly .s:od comes in, 

His hair witli ivy twiii'd, his clothes a tigei 's skiii> 
\Vhose golden ^ws are clutched into a knot. 



23i 




BACCHUS. 




TONa 



AllTS AND SCIENCES. 225 

^. Who was Cybele ? 

A. She IS the reputed mother of the gods and 
men, and is called Terra or the earth ; because 
in the order of creation, the earth first appeared. 
She is represented as a majestic woman, her 
head crowned with towers ; in her hand a key, 
either because the earth contains treasure, or 
because winter locks up vegetation, which it is 
one of her attributes to promote ; she rides in a 
chariot, symbolical of the earth, suspended in 
the atmosphere, and is drawn by lions, because 
there is nothing, however savage and ungovern- 
able, but motherly tenderness may tame. The 
towers of her head represent cities, of which 
she is the goddess. She was called Ops when 
invoked by the husbandmen ; and Uranus as 
being suspended in the middle of the universe j 
and as the mother of the constellations. She 
was Jtlso called Vesta; and had temples, in 
which a pure flame was constantly kept burning. 
Only the pure and the virtuous were allowed to 
approach her. The virgins who guarded the 
sacred fire, were put to death if they suffered it 
to expire. A similar institution was found in 
Peru upon its discovery ; the Virgins of the Sun 
suffered death, if defiled. The Hindu goddess 
Goburra^ is also crowned with towers, and has 
the same attributes. 

^. Let your account of the remainder be 
more brief, as those we have considered shew 
the allegorical character of the ancient mythp- 

A. Juno, as before mentioned, was the sister 
of Jupiter, or the elementary air ; which is also 
the Hindu goddess Paravati. Her attendant or 
messenger, is Iris, or the rainbow. 



226 AN EPITOME OF THE 

Ceres is the goddess of agriculture and civili- 
zation ; her head is wreathed with a coronet of 
wheat in the straw ; her Hindu name is Lalche- 
Hii j and her attributes are the same. 

CePvES was slie who first the furrows ploughM; 
Who gave sweet fruits, and easy fruits aiiow'd ; 
Ceres first tamed us, with her i^cntle laws; 
From her kind hand, the world subsistence draws. 

Diana, called also Luna, or the moon, also 
Hecate, Lucina, and Opis, she is the goddess of 
pregnancy ; by the Egyptians she was called 
Bubastis ; by the Hindus, Calli ; and is repre- 
sented with a crescent on her forehead. 

Minerva, or Pallas, the daughter of Jupiter, 
called by the Greeks, Athene ; by the Hindus, 
Durga; by the people of Samos. Eagatis. Born 
from the forehead of Jupiter, she is the goddess 
of wisdom, and an owl attends her as an emblem 
of gravity. 

Janus was the god of gates and doors, had 
two faces, whence he was called Bifrons and Bi- 
ceps, and had a temple at Rome, which was 
closed whenever the Romans made peace. 

Janus himself before the fane shall m ait, 
And keep the tireadful issues of thr gfite 
With bolts and iron bars. Within remains 
Imprisoned fury, bound in brazen chauiS ; 
Higli on a trophy, rais'd of useless arms 
lie sits, and threjits tlic world vain alarms. 

The Muses, daughters of Jupiter Mnemo- 
syne, or Memory; they are Calliope, the muse 
of rhetoric and epic poetry ; Clio, of History ; 
Erato, of Romance ; Thalia, of Comedy ; Mel- 
pomene, of Tragedy ; Terpsichore, of Dancing ; 
Polyhimnia, of Lyric poetry \. Euterpe, of Mir- 



236 





MINERVA. 



AJITS A^D SCIENCES. 221^ 

SIC and Logic ; Urania, of Astronomy. Their 
residence is Parnassus, where Apollo presides 
over them. The Hindu muses are called Gopya, 
and have each their separate attribute, and their 
Parnassus, which is called Goverdhan ; Apollo 
is called Christna, and Agni, which means fire,, 
emblematic of the sun, or Apollo. 

^ Who are called the Demigods ? 

A. Men who performed some celebrated ac- 
tion, among whom was Perseus, the son of Ju- 
piter and Danae, husband of Andromeda, whom 
he delivered from a sea-monster : his principal 
action was his victory over the Gorgons ; one of 
whom. Medusa he slew. 

Hercules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, 
husband of Amphytrion, and is the most cele- 
brated of all the Heroes or Demigods : famous 
for his twrlvc labors. 

Orpheus, who charmed all hell with his lyre, 
and obtained from Pluto permission for his wife 
Eurydice to return to the earth. 

Castor and Pollux, twin sons of Jupiter and 
Leda, and brothers of the beautiful Helen.^ 
Castor having been killed, Pollux was permitted 
to partake of his immortality ; so that they li\ed 
and died, alternately six months. 

Jason, the chief of the Argonauts, celebrated 
for his conquest of the golden fleece at Colchis ; 
He was enabled to effect it by the aid of Medea, 
who became his wife. 

Theseus, famous, in particular, for his des- 
truction of the Minotaur. He effected it by the 
assistance of Ariadna, who rescued him from 
the Labyrinth by means of a clue of thread. 

^ These are not all the Gods of the Mytho- 



228 AN EPITOME OF THE 

A. By no means. ...they exceed all number.... 
but their nature can be understood by this ab- 
stract. These furtl^er illustrations will be suffi- 
cient. 

The ancients, like our Indians, had but sim- 
pie notions of their being.. ..the eastern colonies 
from Asia, introduced to the Palasgic the Asi- 
atic theogony : religion became the depository 
of the arts and civilization : God, nature, and 
man, are the great objects ; and hence three 
degrees or kinds of theology, which may be 
called the intellectual, the physical, and the civic ; 
the first of sciences is the developement of the 
nature of things, which elevates the mind to the 
contemplation of their origin. The objects 
themselves, demand a second place ; the unalte- 
rable laws of existence and mortality, of the 
seasons, of day and night. Next man himself, 
his relations as a social being, his labors, his 
discoveries, all come to be objects of gratitude and 
admiration. Adoration is but a gratitude more 
sublime ; and this is the foundation of the anci- 
ent mythology. 

The Phenicians brought m}'thology from Asia 
to Greece along with their merchandize, whence 
it spread over Europe, along with the spirit of 
despotism congenial to the institutions of Asia. 
But the mythology of Asia was made to bend 
in Greece and Rome, and to admit a multitude 
of new divinities. ...but though the divinities 
often changed places, and many assumed new 
names, and new divinities were created out of 
the division of their attributes, and even from the 
passions of men, still the order of the classes 
remained. 



ARTS AX^D SC**:NC£S. 229 

The first class represente^d the active or crea- 
tive principles of the true God. ...and these were 
Vulcan, Minerva, Vesta, Hecate, Nemesis ; 
then there belonged to this class those which re- 
presented the passive principles, Rhea, Latona, 
Love, Venus ; and again the union of the two 
Proteus and Pan. 

The second class, or of the visible creation!^ 
were Cybele, Ops, Uranus, Saturn ; the signs of 
the Zodiac, the sun under various qualifications, 
as Jupiter, Vulcan, Pluto, Neptune, Apujlo, 
Esculapius, and Priapus; and the Moon repre- 
sented by lo, Iris, Argus, Juno, Diana, Lucina ; 
to these were added Mercury, the Muses, the 
Fates, &c. 

The third class or mortals, Prometheus, Pan- 
dora, Tantalus, Ceres, Proserpine, Bacchus, 
Hermes ; the allegorical class, as Demons, 
Cyclops, and Penates, and Apotheosis. 

i^. Was there not another classification of 
the Gods ? 

An Yes. ...they were divided into four orders : 

1. The supreme Gods, or Gods of nations of 
whom Jupiter was the chief ; they were 20, and - 
divided into two classes, of which six Gods and 
Goddesses formed the cabinet of Jupiter. Jupi- 
ter, Neptune, Mercury, Apollo, Mars, Vulcan.... 
Juno, Ceres, Minerva, Vesta, Diana, Venus.... 
The other 6 were select Gods....Coelus, Saturn, 
Genius, Orcus, Bacchus, Sol, Terra, and Luna. 
Those who were not of these classes were called 
Indigetes^ acting as Gods ; or Lemones^ or half 
men. 

The Grecian and Roman mythology is very 
much disfigured by licentiousness : and the oc- 
rjLirrcnce of supposed connexions and acts of 

u 



230 AX EPITOME OF THE 

their gods, under the allegorical form, which are 
very pernicious and immoral when unexplained* 

^. What were the labors of Hercules ? 

A. They are exploits of a very extravagant 
kind, and have been limited to twelve. 

1. He strangled the lion of Nemea, and wore 
the hide. The scene of action was Argolis. 

2. The Hydra of Lerna, in Argolis, from 
which the heads as frequently as ihey were cut 
off, sprung out again in great numbers. 

3. The wild boar of Mount Ergmanthus, in 
Arcadia, which he took alive and conveyed on 
his shoulders to Eurystheus. 

4. The Hind with brazen feet, which he took 
in the chase on Mount Menale. 

5. The terrible birds of lake Stymphalis which 
were carnivorous. Hercules exterminated them 
by showers of arrows. This action was in 
Arcadia. 

6. The Bull of the island Crete, which he 
conveyed alive into Peloponnesus. 

7. The Mares of Diomedes, which fed on 
human flesh, and which Hercules carried off.... 
This action was in Thrace. 

8. The girdle of Hipolite, queen of the Ama- 
zons, which he secured after having defeated her. 

9. The stables of Augias, which he cleansed by 
changing the course of the river Alpheus, in Elis. 

10. The monster Gerion, king of Gades, 
whom he killed and carried off his flocks. 

11. The golden apples of the Hesperides, 
which he carried off after having killed the 
dragon. 

12. He delivered Theseus from He77 and 
carried off the terrible three-headed dog Cerbe- 
rus in chains. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 



AN EPITOME 

OF THE •^ 

CLASS IX....LESSON I. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

^ WHAT is to be understood by natural 
philosophy ? 

A. In its simplest sense, it means the love or 
pursuit of wisdom ; in a more comprehensive 
sense, it means the science of the etudy and inves- 
tigation of nature, or of the powers and proper- 
ties of natural bodies, and their action upon each 
other. It has been classed under three different 
branches, each of which is again classed into 
several distinct sciences. 

^. What are the three first classes ? 

A, The first is what is denominated physics^ 
or the study and knowlege of all visible and 
sensible subjects, which is called experimental 
philosophy. 2. Metaphysics^ "which treats of 
subjects dependant on the mind or intellect, as 
the reasoning faculty. 3. Morcil Philosophy^ 
or what regards the conduct of human life, 
government, laws, liberty. 

^. Are these the only divisions of natural 
philosophy i 

yi. There are numerous others, as some divide- 
it into two classes only ; as practical^ and specu- 
lative ; the first of which is again divided into> 



232 AX EPITOME OF THE 

logic and ethics ; and the latter into demonstra- 
tive and hj^pothetical. It is, however, rather an 
aggregate of several branches, or a term signi- 
lying numerous sciences, than a regular science 
itself ; the scientific character being dependant 
on the due order and perfections of the science 
which it comprehends. 

i^. What are the sciences principally £ompre-- 
liended in Natural Philosophy ? 

A. They may be 'thus arranged. 1. Things 
that relate to the heavens. 2. To the air. 3. 
The waters. 4. The earth. 

Under the first head is Cosmography, Astro* 
nomy, and those sciences which are used 
to demonstrate them ; as Mathematics, 
Geometry, and Optics, Mechanics, Gravi- 
tation. 
Second head ; the Atsmosphere, Pneumatics, 
or the properties of Air, Meteorology, the 
Winds, Electricity. 
Third head ; the Sea, Tides, Mineral w^aters-, 

and Marine productions, 
t^ourth head ; Geography, Geology, Mine- 
ralogy, Botany, and human and other ani- 
mated beings. 
>^. But some of these refer to Moral Philo- 
sophy ? 

A. That branch belongs to man alone, and 

concerns his conduct and happiness, and is 

embraced under commerce, politics, and ethics. 

^. What are the great principles of Natural 

Philosophy ? 

A. The celebrated Bacon, Des Cartes, and 
Newton, established certain laws, by which the 
investigations of Natural Philosophy are gov-v 
emed : Newton, the great master of science, 
has given them this form. 



AKTS AND SCIENCES. 238 

1. More causes for natural things are not to 
be admitted, than are true and sufficient ; for 
nature does nothing in vain ; she delights in 
simplicity, and never in superfluity. Therefore, 

2. Natural effects of the same kind, are to be 
assigned to natural causes. 

3. The properties and qualities of natural 
bodies cannot be encreased or diminished ; thua 
all/ bodies have extension, divisibility, hardness, 
impenetrabilit}^, mobility, resistance, and gravity. 

4. In Experimental Philosophy, propositions 
founded on phenomena by induction, are to be 
deemed either exactly or nearly true, until 
experiment, or other phenomena, prove the con- 
trary i otherwise, induction might be destroyed 
by hypothesis. 

^ But how are these laws to be executed ? 

A. By conducting all reasonings in the man- 
ner of Mathematics, or Anatomy, or Chemistry, 
or natural history generally ; by analysing instead 
of assuming^ by examining particularly, instead 

of forming a judgment upon a general view 

This analysis consists in making experiments and 
observations, and drawing conclusions from them 
by analogy, and admitting no objections against 
conclusions, but what are taken from experi- 
ments or certain knov,^n truths. 



u2 



234j AN EPITOME or TUJB 

CLASS IX....LESSON II. 

OF ASTRONOMY 

% WHAT IS astronomy? 

A. The science by which we are taught the 
motions, magnitudes, distances, order, and re- 
volutions of the heavenly bodies, 

•^: What do you particularly understand by 
the heavenly bodies ? 

A. ^[iie sun, the planets, stars and comets^ 

i^^. What do you mean by the motions of the 
heavenly bodies ? 

A. The planets ai*e known to revolve in various 
orbits, according to certain principles which 
have been accounted for by philosophers* 

^ What is meant by magnitudes? 

A. The size or bulk of the planetary bodie*, 
in relation to eaijh cjlher, and to some known 
measure. 

•:^. How do v^u explain this relative or known 
Viieasure ? 

A. By taking some familiar standard, such as 
a foot measure of tv/elve inches ; we have a 
perfect idea not simply o-f its lengtk, but of a 
quarter of its length, an inch or one twelfth part 
of its length ; we have also in our power to fc;rm 
accurate ideas ©f double its length, and of any 
other number : we then have another measure 
rftUtd a ?u}Ie^ which consists of 1760^ of these 
icet, and by this measure of a mile v/e act in 
raeasuring large spaces, as in the case of a foot 
in small ; and there are other standards for the 
iJrneasurc of larger spaces and bodies. ..such as 
leagues^ which consist of a ce?itain numb^"^ '^^ 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 2S5 

miles, and degrees which consist of a greater 
number of miles still ; it is by these standards 
we compute distances and magnitudes. 

^ How do you use them in the science of 
astronomy ? 

J, A knowlege of the mathematics is neces- 
sary to comprehend the practical method of 
wieasurement ; but learned men have already de- 
termined certain principles by which we may 
understand the subject ; for example the diame- 
ter of our globe is known to be about 7964 miles, 
i-ts circumference 25,020. We know that of all 
the heavenly bodies the nearest to our earth is 
the moon^ and that its mean distance from the 
earth is 240,000 miles ; we have a shorter 
method of comprehending the distance, by com- 
puting the proportions by the diameter of the 
earth ; and we find that the moon's distance is 
about 30 diameters of our earth : again we 
may judge of the distance of the sun by the 
same rule, its mean distance is 95,000,000, or 30O 
times farther off than the moon: but when we say 
9000 diameters of the earth, we render the idea 
more simple. We judge of the magnitudes and 
distances of all the planets in the same way , thQ 
nearest of the fixed stars is 5000 times more 
distant from us than the sun, or 45,000,.000 of 
times the earth's diameter* 

^ WVat is the sun. ? 

A. That glorious luminary created by God'as. 
the source of light and heat to the world ; which 
4s the centre of our planetary system. 

i§. Is the nature of the sun known ? 

A, No ; some imagine it to be a mass of fire,, 
continually supplied v/ith globules of combusti- 
ble ma.tter, and therefore have thought it to be 






236 AN EPITOME OF TEIB 

the place of hell ; others consider it as an ele-> 
mentary fire, which subsibts without any kind of 
extraneous nourishment. 

^ What is understood of the size or magni- 
tude of the sun ? 

A. It is the largest of all known bodies, and 
by mathematical calculation is stated to be 793 ,000 
miles diameter; its size compai;ed with the earth 
is as 1,392,500 to one ; and it is 539 times larger 
than all the planets put together. 

^. Why does it^appear so small? 

A, On account of the distance, which is so 
very great, that a cannon ball would be little less 
than thirty years coming from thence to the 
earth, even if it flew as swift as a bullet does 
when it is first discharged from the mouth of a 
cannon. 

ir^. Is the snn fixed or moveable ? 

A. It was formerly supposed that the sun 
iX)Oved round the earth, because it seemed to do 
'^o : but it is now demonstrated that the earth 
moves round about the sun. 

^. Has the sun no motion of its own ? 

A. Yes. ...certain spots are seen on the face 
of the sun, which move in an uniform direc- 
tion, disappear and appear again, from which 
it has been found that it revolves on its own 
axis in 25 days. This axis is inclined to the 
t^cliptic in an angle of about 82 degrees 30 
minutes. 

i^. Does the sun afford us any other benefit 
but that of light ? 

A. Yes ; it ripens the fruits of the earth by 
Its heat. 

^. Why is not the sun always visible after it 
rises ?" 



ARTS A5rD SCIENCES. 237 

J. A thick cloud will sometimes conceal It 
from our view, by interrupting its rays. Of this 
we may be easily convinced : — if we stand upon 
the top of a high mountain above the clouds, the 
sun will then be visible, but totally hid from those 
in the valley below. 

i^. What is the moon ? 

A. A large globe, like our «arth, in matter and 
form, which to our limited conceptions is form- 
ed only to give us light by night ; but many wise 
men believe the moon to be a world inhabited 
as ours is. 

i^. Is the moon a luminary like the sun ? 

A. No ; it i« a dark opaque body, and receives 
all its light from the sun, and the light we see on 
the moon is only the sun's light shining thereon. 

^. How do we call the different degrees of 
light which the moon shews ? 

A. Her phases. At new moon she is between 
the sun and the earth, and her enlightened parts 
are hid or turned from us ; when full, we are 
between her and the sun, and v^-e see all her en- 
lightened side : — she likewise appears as half 
a circle ; when about twenty days old she ap* 
pears gibbous, then a little part of her light turu^. 
towards us* 



AiV EPITOMB OF THJB 



CLASS IX....LESSON III. 

ASTRONOMY. 

^ Having in our first class, treated of co^- 
i^ography or the great system of the universe, 
l^tus now follow the rule of natural philosophy, 
by treating of particulars. What is to be par- 
ticularly understood by astronomy ? 

A. It is the science that treats of the heavenly 
bodies, the planets, stars, comets, and other 
phenomena of the heavens. 

^ Is the science very old or is it much im- 
proved ? 

A, The records of the Hindus carry as- 
tronomical knowlegeback to about 12,000 years, 
and the accuracy of their knowlege on the solar 
system is unquestionable long before either the 
Grecian or Roman name was heard of; the 
science has nevertheless been wonderfully im- 
proved within the two last centuries, and 
particularly within the last 50 years. 

^. Who after the Hindus, are the most anci- 
ent astronomers known ? 

A. Callisthenes, a disciple of Aristotle, is said 
to have collected the astronomical calculations 
of 1903 years before his time at Babylon ; but the 
Chaldean astronomy does not furnish any thing 
ppsitive until 737 years before Christ. Hypar- 
chusof Nicea,who died 125 years before Christ, 
formed a very good method ; Ptolomy of Alex- 
andria, 280 years after, determined the longitude 
and latitude of 1022 fixed stars ; but he made 
the earth the centre of the universe ; and this 
prevailed till the IGth century, or in 1530, when 
the system that yet prevails, as computed by 
KeplcTj Gallileo, and Newton, was establishecU- 



ARTS AISD SCIEScES. '259 

^ What is a planet ? 

A. A star that has a periodical and regular 
motion. 

^ In what manner do these planets move ? 

A. They all, in different periods of time, per- 
form their motion round the sun from west to 
east, in orbits more or less eliptical. 

^ How many planets are there ? 

A. Our solar system consists of 30 known pla- 
netary bodies. 

^. How does that appear — when the common 
opinion is that there are only seven planets ? 

A. The planets have been designated into pri- 
mary, or of the first order ; and secondary, or 
those which were connected with the primarjr 
planets. 

^. Have they been always known ? 

A. No ; there have been several new planets 
discovered within a few years. 

^. Are the planets all of the same shape ? 

A. No.... the sun is a perfect globe ; as is the 
moon ; the earth is not quite round, it being 
flat at the poles, like some^apples at the stalk 
and flowering ends, or oblate spheroid ; Mercury, 
on the other hand, is an oblique spheroid ; Ju- 
piter is surrounded by 3 belts and 4 moons ; 
Saturn, 2 belts and 7 moons ; Herschel 6 
moons. 

^. Will it not be useful to state the names, 
and other particulars, of the planets ? 

^ They are as follow : 



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AN EPITOME OF TIl£ 





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AKTS AXU SCIENCES, 2M 



CLASS IX....LESSON III. 

OF ASTRONOMY. 

^ IN the preceding lesson you mentioned 
thirty planetary bodies ; but in the table you 
name only twelve, beside the moon : what are 
the remaining ? 

A. Among these the sun is not usually call- 
ed a planet, it being the supposed centre of the 
whole system. But the moon also is only a 
secondary planet, its revolutions being performed 
round the earth, and at the same time accompa- 
nying the earth round the sun ; but I include 
the sun, in the mimber of the primary planets. 

^ This accounts for only one of the secondary 
planets.. ..what are the rest ? 

A. The planet Jupiter has four satellites, or 
mooTis, like that which accompanies our earth ; 
Saturn has seven, and Herschell six ; which 
make, with the twelve primary planets, thirty. 

^ Which are the new planets i 

A. The planet Herschell was discovered in 
1782, by a German, whose name the planet 
properly bears ; the six satellites or moons of 
that planet were discovered afterwards ; they 
appear to move in a contrary direction from 
other satellites. 

^ Are there no more than two new planets ? 

A. Yes.... Mr. Piazzi, an Italian, discovered 
Ceres on the first day of the present century, 
January 1801 ; and Dr. Olbers, a German, dis- 
covered Pallas in 1802 ; Mr. Hardingdiscovcred 
Juno in 1804 ; and Mr. Piazzi Vesta, in 1807.... 
These astronomers gave the names to the pla^ 
nets they discovered. 

X 



2^2 AN EPITOME OF THE 

^. How may the planets be known ? 

A. Mercury may sometimes be seen by the 
naked eye, but not frequently, on account of its 
nearness to the sun, in the splendor of whose 
beams it is hidden. The best way of observing 
it is in its passage over the sun, when it appears 
like a black spot on its surface. Venus is some- 
times our evening, and sometimes our morning 
star. Mars may be easily known by its deep 
red color ; Saturn by its dusky paleness ; and 
Jupiter is distinguished from the fixed stars by 
the largeness of its size, and the steady brown 
brightness of its color, which is so great, that it 
will sometimes illuminate a thin cloud in the 
same manner as the moon. Herschell, Pallas, 
Ceres, Juno, and Vesta, are not to be seen with- 
out a telescope. 

^ Have all the planets moons attendant upon 
them like our earth ? 

A, None but those we have mentioned, and 
these were unknown to the ancients before teles- 
copes were invented, and cannot now be seen 
without that instrument : such of the planets 
as are farthest from the sun, and therefore enjoy 
least of his light, have that deficiency made up 
by several moons vvhich constantly accompany 
and revolve about them, as our moon revolves 
about our earth. 

^. What is the earth? 

A. The earth is the globe w^e inhabit. 

^. How large is it ? 

A. Jts circumference is abotit twenty-five 
thousand miles. 

^. What is its true figure? 

A. Though we often call it a globe, yet it Is 
by no means perfectly rounds but widened out 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 24S 

at the equator, and flattened at both poles like a 
turnip; or in the language of the science, its 
figure is an oblate spheroid. 

^- You mentioned that the moon moved 
round the sun with the earth ; how is the mo- 
tion of the earth performed ? 

A* The earth has two motions ; it turns round 
on its own axis every twenty-four hours, which 
alternately causes day and night, as either side 
is turned toward or from the sun ; it likewise 
revolves round the sun in three hundred and 
sixty five days, six hours, which periodical revo- 
lution produces the four seasons of the year.... 
This clouble motion of the earth may be com- 
pared to that of a coach drawn round a ring.. ..the 
wheels go round on their own axis, at the saoiC 
time that they move round the ring. It travels 
at the rate of fifty-eight thousand miles every 
hour; which is one hundred and twenty time# 
swifter than a cannon ball ; and by its rapid motion 
on its axis, the inhabitants of Philadelphia are 
carried five hundred and eighty five miles every 
hour. Those at the equator liiove much faster ; 
those towards the poles much slower ; and those 
at the vpry poles, hardly at all. 

^. What is the reason that some parts of the 
moon's face looks dusky, and others light ? 

A. The bright parts of the moon's body are 
supposed to be the highest parts of land, which 
reflect the light of the sun, as hills, mountains, 
promontories, islands, &c. the dark parts of the 
moon are caverns, deep valleys, and places which 
reflect not the sun's light so strongly as others ; 
or the bright parts may be land, and the dark wa- 
ter. 

i^. Is the moon larger than the earth ? 



*2ii AN EPIrTOMi: ^F Tlf« 

A. No ; the earth is at least fifty times larger 
than the moon. 

^ What is its distance from the earth ? 

A. It is supposed to be about two hundred 
and forty thousand miles. 

^. What influence has the moon ? 

A. It is said to be the cause of the tides* 

^ How happens that ? 

A. By attracting the waters of the sea, it 
raises them higher. 

^ What else is observable of the moon ? 

J. That it is believed to be inhabited : for 
to what end else can serve the distribution of 
land and water, mountains and vallies, but, as 
on our earth, to nourish and sustain men, beasts', 
and vegetables. 

OF FIXED STARS. 

^ What are the other luminaries in the hea- 
vens called i 

A. They are called fixed stars, and planets^ 
or moving stars. 

^. Why are the stars so distinguished ? 

A. They are called fixed stars, because they 
do not appear to change their places. 

^. U^hat are the fixed stars supposed to be ? 

A. They are supposed to be so many suns, 
like ours ; having planets, or habitable worlds, 
moving round them ; and are supposed to be 
each the sun of remote systems resembling 
ours. 

:^. What is their number ? 

A. They are supposed to be innumerable. 
The number to be seen at once by the naked eye 
is not more than four thousand, nor have any 
more been discovered by the help of glasses than 



ARTS AND SCIENCES* 245 

about 60,000. The reason of their appearing 
so much more numerous is owing to their strong 
sparkling, and our looking at them in a confused 
manner. 

^. How have they been counted ? 

A. Several philosophers have devised means 
for counting them ; and have constructed tables 
of their places in the heavens, so that astrono- 
mers m-ay know when any new star appears, or 
an old star disappears ; which has happened ; 
and by which accuracy some new planets have 
been lately discovered. 

^ Have not some modern discoveries been 
made of vast numbers of stars ? 

A. Yes ; Herschell has shewn that what is 
called the milky way in the heavens, is but a 
greater collection of stars, whose light is visible 
though their bodies are too remote to be seen 
individually by the naked eye. 

^. Are there no stars that move beside the 
planets ? 

A. There are many stars which, though they 
preserve the same place in the Heavens, are some- 
times extremely bright, and at others so dark as 
to be scarcely visible ; several stars have disap- 
peared from their former places ; and some new 
stars appeared in places where there were none 
before. 

^ What is their supposed relative distance ? 

A. The nearest is computed to be 32 millions 
of miles from us, or farther than a cannon ball 
would reach in 7 millions of years. The orbit 
in which the earth moves is 162 millions of miles 
diameter, yet the size or distance of the fixed 
stars never appear encreased or diminished. 
x3 



2i6 AN EPITOME OF THB 

^. Are there any means by which you ca» 
convey an idea to the senses of their size in re- 
lation to each other, and their distance ? 

A. A globe of 24 inches diameter being taken 
as a representative of the sun, the proportioa 
will be about the following ; 

Size, Distance in yards *^ 

The sun, - 24 inches, 
Jupiter, - - 2 5 tenths, - - 4S0 
Saturn, - - 1 9 tenths, - 788 

Herschell, - - 1 1 tenth, - - l57a 
Earth, - - - 1 fourth of an inch 82 
Venus, - . 1 fifth - - 60 

Mars. - - - 1 sixth - - 126 
Mercury, - - 1 eighth - - 32 

By the same proportion the distance of the 
ball representing the moon, would be 772 inches 
from that representing the earth. 

^. Can you form an idea of the distance of 
t?he sun by motion ? 

A. Suppose a cannon ball projected from a 
cannon, were to continue at the rate of 480 
miles in an hour, if fired from either of the pla- 
nets, it would require the following times to 
reach the sun from each. 



From Tvlcrcury 


8 


years 


290 daysb 


Venus - 


- 16 




59 


Eaith 


22 




U 


Mars - 


. 34 




82 


Jupiter 


- 116 




166 


Setun - 


213 




330 


liei^cti.ell; ' 


. 427 




^9e 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 247 

CLASS IX....LESSON IV. 

OF COMETS. 

^. Are there no other bodies which move in 
the heavens, but the primary and secondary 
planets ? 

A. Yes,.,.there are comets. 

^ What are comets ? 

A. Comets are luminous bodies resembling 
stars ; they exhibit various appearances. Some 
of them appear simply like stars in color and 
brilliancy ; others with a long transparent tail, 
issuing from that side which is turned from the 
sun ; others with a luminous atmosphere around 
them. 

i^. Have they been long discovered ? 

A. They have been familiar to all antiquity ; 
but they were not considered as bodies governed 
by fixed laws like the planets ; they were known 
to the ancient Chaldeans. Pythagoras, who 
died 497 years before Christ, was the first 
who considered them as planets of a particu- 
lar order; Aristotle, who lived 200 years af- 
terwards, considered them as meteors, like 
what we call falling stars ; Seneca, who died 
in the 65th year of our era, held the same opi- 
nions as Pythagoras ; in one of his works, he 

thus foretells v/hat has since come to pass 

*'The time will, come, when the nature of co- 
" mets and their magnitudes will be demonstrat- 
*^ed, and the routes they take so different from 
•* the planets, explained**' 

^. Who among the moderns have discovered 
their nature ? 

A, Tycho Brahe, a Swede, formed the system 
that is now received, after a diligent observation 



5»8 XS liPITOME or THE 

of the comet of 1 577. Newton^ the celebrated 
English philosopher, has determined the nature 
of comets, which he says are compact, solid, and 
durable bodies. 

.^. In what do they differ from planets ? 

A* The orbits, or the paths they move in, are 
so extremely eccentric, as to render it difficult 
to fix their periods of revolution : some of them 
disappear for many hundred years, and return 
again. 

^. Is it ascertained how many belong to our 
system ? 

A. Dr. Hutton, an eminent mathematician in 
England, gives a list of 450 different comets ; 79 
of which have appeared and re-appeared ; their 
periods of re-appearance are various and unequal 
in relation to each other.... the periodical return 
of a few of them, has been determined ; but 
modem improvements in astronomy have ena- 
bled philosophers to discover one or more 
comets almost every year, in some parts of the 
world. 

^. Of how many are the periods known ? 

A. Of three only, with precision. One returns 
in 75 years, another in 199, and the third, and 
most remarkable, in 575 years. This la&t ap- 
peared in 1106, and 1680. 

^ Are they of the same nature as. our earth I 

A. It is presumed not.. ..Sir Isacc Newtoa 
computed the heat of the comet of 1680, to be 
2000 times greater than that of red hot iron ; 
and that it must retain its heat till it comes 
round again. No kind of bodies with which 
vre are acquainted, could bear such a heat, with- 
out vitrifying and dissipating, 

^ Doefi a comet forctel any great event I 



ARTS AXD SCI£lirC£S. 24^9 

u4. No....but superstition formerly taught 
people to believe they were portentous, 

OF ECLIPSES. 

^ What is meant by an eclipse ? 

J. It is the privation of the light of the sun 
or moon, by the intervention of one or the other 
of those bodies between the earth and the other 
body. 

^ How many kinds of eclipses are there ? 

A. Those of the sun and moon are the princi- 
pal ; there are eclipses of the satellites of other 
planets also. 

^ What is the cause of an eclipse of the sun ? 

A> When the moon passes in a right line be- 
tween the sun and the earth. An eclipse of the 
sun never happens but at the time of a new 
moon ; this eclipse is often so complete that the 
stars are visible to the naked eye. 

^. What is the cause of an eclipse of the 
moon ? 

A. The passage of the earth in a right line be- 
tween the sun and moon ; this never happens but 
when the moon is at the full. It is easy to con- 
ceive that the moon having no light of her own 
but what she receives from the sun, when those 
rays are intercepted by the shadow of the earth, 
that the moon must appear dark or duskj^ 



250 AN EPITOME Of THE 

CLASS IX..-.LESSON V. 

OF AIR. 

^. WHAT are the properties of air ? 

A. It was formerly a received notion that all 
nature was composed of four elements, air^ 
earth, fire and water ; these ideas are now ex- 
ploded, as they are all found to be compound 
substances ; the air enters into the composition 
of. all bodies, and exists in them under a solid 
foi m, in this state it is called fixed air ; it is 
figuratively described as the cement of all other 
bodies. 

i^. As the air Is a compound body, are the 
substances of w^hich it is composed known ? 

A. Yes, chemistry which has unlolded to hu- 
man curiosity a vast creation before imknown, 
has determined that it is composed of 22 parts of 
oxygen gas, or pure air, a true element, and 78 
parts of nitrogen or azote. 

S^. What are these substances called oxygen 
and nitrogen ? 

-4. The perfect knowlege of them is to be ob« 
tained only by considerable attention to chemis- 
try, but in a brief way they may be thus describ- 
ed, oxygen supports flame and animal life, but 
oxygen alone would be too active for animal ex- 
istence ; the glorious author of nature has tem- 
pered it by the admixture of nitrogen, which ap- 
pears to act upon it as water does upon sugar or 
salt ; it dilutes it, so as to fit it for animal life ; 
nitrogen is so congenial to vegetation as to be 
considered as the food of plants. 

^. What idea can you give of the effect of 
the weight of the air. 



AKT6 AND SCIENCES^ 251 

A. It so closely invests the earth with all the 
bodies therein, that its weight is supposed to be 
equal to 15 pounds weight upon every square 
inch. 

THE WINDS. 

:^. What is the wind ? 

A. Nothing else but the air put violently into 
motion ; and this is occasioned chiefly by means 
of heat ; and by the revolutions of the earth. 

^ How does the heat operate ? 

A, When any part of the air is heated by the 
sun, or otherwise, it will sv/ell, and thereby affect 
the adjacent air ; and by various degrees of heat 
in different places, there will arise various mo- 
tions of the air ; the air much heated, will as- 
cend towards the upper part of the atmosphere, 
and the adjacent air will rush in to supply its 
place ; and therefore there will be a stream or 
current of air from all parts towards the place 
where the heat is ; hence we see the reason why 
the air rushes with such force into a glass- house, 
a tile kiln, or into close rooms where great fires 
are made ; and also why smoke is carried up a 
chimney, and why the air rushes in at the key- 
hole of a door or small chink, when there is a 
fire in the room. 

.^. How are the winds described ? 

A, Into four principal ones, the north, south, 
EAST and WEST, which receive their names from 
the points whence they blow. 

The winds in various parts of the earth are 
not of the same temperature, though blowing 
from the same point of the compass. 

In the United States, and in many parts of 
Europe, the south wind is warm, as itblowsfrom 
the torrid zone j but at the Cape of Good Hope, 



252 AK EPITOME OF THE 

at Su Helena, and in the Indian archipelago, the 
«outh wind is cool and refreshing. 

In England the east^vind is dry because it 
comes across Asia ; with us it is wet because it 
crosses the Atlantic ; while with them the west 
wind is damp and with us dry from similar 
causes. 

OF THE MONSOONS. 

^. What are the winds called monsoons ? 

A. They are the winds which blow in the In- 
dian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans, for nearly one 
half of the year in one direction, and the remain- 
ing part in the opposite direction. 

^ Do you know what is the cause of their 
uniformity and change ? 

yf. I have never heard it accounted for in a 
satisfactory manner....perhaps it may arise from 
the rotation of the earth from west to east at the 
rate of 58,000 miles an hour, which must dis- 
compose the atmosphere or air, and carry it in 
a current. 

^ But then the monsoons should blow either 
in the same direction with the revolution of the 
earth, or the contrary. ...east or west.. ..whereas 
they blow cither south-east or north-west, or 
nearly so ? 

A* The obliquity of the ecliptic. ..the extreme 
cold at the poles, and the heat at the equator, 
may combine to give the winds the direction 
immediately between the cardinal points. 

^. But that does not account for the half 
year's opposition of the monsoon to the course 
of the preceding half year? 

A, Very true ; but the course of the sun in 
the ecliptic, one half year in the southern and 
the other in the northern hemisphere, may ex- 



ARTS ANH SCJEXCE^ 25^ 

plain this. Observe....what is here said about 
the monsoons is merely speculative. ...to exer 
cise ingenuity and promote enquiry. 

The velocity of the wind is at the rate of 50 

or 60 miles an hour in a great storm'; that of a 

common brisk wind is about 15 miles an hour; 

^nd some winds move not «ven one mile in that 

pace of time. 

A person, therefore, on horseback, and even 
sometimes on foot, may be said to outstrip the 
wind ; for if he moves faster than the wind, 
which is very possible, he will have a wind in 
kis face, though the motion of the air be really 
the contrary way. 

The air in the form of clouds is often seen to 
move in two contrary currents, and this happens 
generally previous to thunder. The clouds in 
such a case are seen to move one way, while the 
Weather-cock points another. 

An experienced seaman has furnished the fol- 
lowing account of the ceasing of the North East 
trade wind, the result of a careful examination 
of nearly 800 journals ; it ceases in January be- 
tween the 6th and 5th degrees of north latitude: 
in February between the 5th and 3d; in March 
and April, between the 5th and 2d ; in MaV 
between the 6th and 4th ; in June in the 10th 
degree; in August and September between the 
14th and 13th degrees, and during the months 
of October, November and December^ they 
blow as far as the line. 



254/ AX EPITOME or THE 



CLASS IX....LESSON VL 

OF TIDES. 

^. Pray what is meant by the tides, or alter- 
nate flux and reflux of the sea ? 

A. As rivers flow and swell, so also does the 
sea : like them it has its currents, that agitate its 
waters, and preserve them from putrefaction, — 
This great motion of the earth is called its tides* 
The waters of the ocean have been observed 
regularly from all antiquity to swell twice in 
about four and twenty hours, and as often to 
subside again. 

In its influx the sea generally rises for six 
hours, when it remains, as it were, suspended, 
and in equilibrio, for about twelve minutes ; at 
that time it is called high water. 

In its reflux the sea falls for six hours, when it 
remains, as it were, in a like manner, suspended, 
and in equilibrio, for about twelve minutes ; at 
that time it is called low water. 

^. What is the cause of these wonderful 
appearances ? 

A» According to Newton, they are occasioned 
by the attraction of the moon ; for the waters 
immediately under the monn will be attracted 
up in a heap, whilst the waters on the opposite 
side of the earth, being but feebly attracted, will 
be very light : if they be very light, they also 
will rise, and all the neighboring waters flowing 
into that place, they will swell into a heap or 
mountain of waters, pointing to the opposite 
parts of the heavens. Thus does the moon, in 
once going round the earth in tv/enty-four hours, 
produce two tides or swells, and consequently as 
many ebbs. 



ARTS AJ^D SCIENCES. 255 

^ How do the tides run ? 

Ji. They must flow from east to west ; for 
they must necessarily follow the moon's motion, 
which is from east to west. 

This course of the tides, however, is some- 
times interrupted by the continents and other 
large tracts of land. The tide, for instance, in 
the Indian ocean, being stopped by the eastern 
coast of Africa, must necessarily flow south, 
towards the Cape of Good Hope ; which having 
passed, it then runs northward, along the west- 
ern coast of Africa, and that of Spain, Portugal, 
and France ; part enters the English channel, 
and there meets the tide from the German ocean, 
running a contrary way, and is necessarily stop- 
ped, which produces a very great swell of the 
water : the rest proceeds north, towards the 
pole. 

As to the tides in rivers, they must always 
flow in a direction directly the reverse with 
their natural stream ; for the waters of the sea 
being higher, they must necessarily flow into 
them, and make tlieir waters flow back, or re- 
gurgitate. 

CLOUDS, MISTS, AND DEW. 

^ You mentioned clouds, how are they com- 
posed ? 

A. Clouds are nothing else but a collection of 
misty vapours, suspended aloft in the air, and 
soaring on the wings of the wind in a state so 
condensed, as to appear like substantial bodies. 

^. Pray how high do you suppose the clouds 
to fly ? 

A. From about a quarter of a mile to a mile. 
It is common for persons, by climbing very high 
mountains, to get above the clouds, and see them 



2Be AN EPITOME 0^ TBE 

swim beneath them, and, as it were, brushing 
the side of the mountains they are on. 

^ Whence come the various figures and co- 
lors of the clouds ? 

A. The wonderful variety in the colors of 
the clouds, is owing to their particular situation 
with regard to the sun, and the different reflec- 
tions of its light ; the various figures of the 
clouds result from their loose and voluble 
texture, revolving into any form according to 
the different force of the winds. 

^. How are mists formed ? 

A. Mists are those collections of vapours 
produced by the heat, and which chiefly rise 
from fenny m.oist places, and become more visi- 
ble as the light of the day decreaseth. 

^ From what is the dew produced ? 

A. From a quantity of particles of water ex* 
tremely subtle, that float about in a calm and 
serene air in form of vapours ; these, being 
condensed by the coldness of the night, lose by 
degrees their agitation ; and many uniting 
together, fall in the evening in small invisible 
particles, like an extremely fine and delicate rain, 
which continues but a short time, and is seen in 
drops of water like pearls, upon leaves and 
herbs. 

RAIN. 

•s; What is rain ? 

A. Thick clouds condensed by the cold, which, 
by their own weight, fall towards the earth and 
are broken into small quantities, called drops of 
water* 

If the cloud that melts is greatly rarified, and 
its particles in falling, meet an air moderately 
warm, these drops will be so small, that they 
will not compose raia but mists only. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 257 

^ Are not those countries near the tropics 
subject to rain ? 

-3. They are — and the rain is considered as 
beingproduced from a phenomenon called a water 
spout — or an absorption of water, from the sea, 
from lakes or rivers, into the clouds, whence it is 
discharged in torrents of rain. 

OF HAIL AND SNOW. 

^. What is hail? 

A. Hail is formed when the parts of the cloud, 
beginning to fall in large drops meet in their de- 
scent a very cold air, which freezes them, and 
form ice, which are very near the figure and 
size the drops of water would have been had. 
they fallen. 

^. How is snow formed ? 

A. Snow is produced thus : in winter the re- 
gions of the air are intensely cold, and the clouds 
of moisture cold on every side, quickly pass from 
that state of condensation which might reduce 
them to rain, into that which reduces them ta 
ice ; so that in winter, as soon as the clouds 
begin to change into very fine drops of water, 
each of these small particles freeze, and touch- 
ing each other, form flakes of snow. 

^. Why are these flakes so light, and the 
snow so white ? 

A. The small intervals that the flakes leave 
between them, like so many pores, filled with a 
subtile air, are the cause of their lightness. 

The snow is white, because the small parti-^ 
cles of ice that compose those flakes being hard, 
solid, transparent, and in chrystals differently 
arranged, they reflect to us the light from aji 
yarts* 



tbS AN EPITOME OF THE 

THUNDER AKD LIGHTNING. 

SK What is thunder ? 

A, A noise heard in the air most frequently 
in the summer. Thunder is the most v^'onder- 
fui of all meteors. 

^. What is the cause of this meteor ? 

A. Thunder is caused by the meeting of two 
clouds, one charged with electric matter, and the 
other without a sufficiency to keep up the equili- 
brium ; they meet... .and in the fierceness of 
their motion, burst with a tremendous noise^ 
which is preceded by a flash of lightning or 
fire. 

The reason we do not hear the dreadful noise 
of the thunder, so soon as we see the lightning 
is, because the sound is longer arriving to our 
cars, than light to our sight. 

Light moves almost instantaneously : sound 
moves no more than 1142 feet in a second. That 
light moves much faster than sound, any one 
may satisfy himself, by observing a gun discharg- 
ed at a distance, for he will see the fire long 
before he hears the sound. 

The continuation and repetition of the sound 
is caused by a kind of echo formed in the clouds, 
to which many hard bodies on the earth may 
contribute, which return those rollings or rever- 
berations we hear af;er a great clap of thunder. 

^. I have heard talk of thunder-baits and 
their strange effects, pray what are they ? 

A. What is mis-called a thunder-bolt, is a 
solid and most rapid Hame«^ which, with incredi- 
ble swiftness, flies from the clouds to the earth, 
and passes through eveiy thing opposed to its 
course. It sometimes kills men and animals, 
burns and overthrows large trees and buildings. 



ARTS JLKD SCIENCES. 259 

GLASS IX....LESSON VH. 

EARTHQUAKES. 

^. What Is an earthquake ? 

A. A sudden motion caused by the inflamma- 
tion of some sulphurous and bituminous sub- 
stances contained in the bowels of the earth 
not far from its surface. 

Naturalists attribute them to both air and water, 
and that very truly. — To comprehend this more 
easily, it must be remarked, that the surface of 
the earth is like a shell, beneath which there are 
an infinite number of cavities and canals, suffi- 
cient to contain a considerable quantity of air, 
water, &c. which, attempting to rush out vio- 
lently, cause those extraordinary tremblings of 
the earth. ...Others, however, are of opinion, that 
earthquakes are not so much owing to the ex- 
plosion of any sulphurous matter, or the expan* 
sion of any winds or vapours in the bowels of 
the earth, as to the electric matter rushing along 
the surface of it, and perhaps communicating 
with that within. 

Dr. Stukely was the first who advanced this 
opinion, in support of which he urged many 
specious arguments. In the first place, he says, 
that in the earthquake which happened at Lon- 
don, on the 20th September, 1750, and which 
affected an extent of country 30 miles in diame- 
ter, had it arisen from a subterraneous explosion, 
it must have moved an inverted cone, or, which 
is the same thing, a solid body of earth in the 
shape of a sugar loaf turned upside down, whose 
base was 30 miles, and its axis or depth, 15 or 
20 miles ; an effect which, he affirms, no natiiral 
power could produce* 



^60 AN EPITOME or THE 

Nay, in the great earthquake which happened 
In Asia Minor, A. D. 17, which destroyed 
thirteen large cities, and which affected an ex- 
tent of country 300 miles in diameter, had it 
proceeded from a subterraneous cause, it must 
have moved an inverted cone of solid earth 300 
miles in diameter, and upwards of 900 in cir- 
cumference, and about 200 in depth and axis J 
which Stukely says, all the gunpowder which 
has been made since the invention of it would 
not have been able to stir, much less any vapours, 
which could be supposed to be generated so far 
below the surface. 

Add to this, that a ship sailing on the deepest 
ocean is affected by an earthquake in the same 
manner as if upon dry land. Those on board 
seem to feel as if they had struck upon a rock, 
or as if something had thumped against the 
bottom of the ship. But this could never be the 
case, did the earthquake arise from a subterra- 
neous explosion at the bottom of the sea ; for 
that, at the utmost, could only product a 
gradual swell of the w'ater, and not a sudden 
shock, like a stroke of electricity, as it now 
does. 

VOLCANOES, 

^ Are there not many subterraneous places 
in the earth from which issue torrents of smoke 
and flames, rivers of melted metals, and clouds 
of ashes and stones ? 

A. Yes ; they are called Volcanoes ; the most 
famous of which are those of mount £tna in 
Sicily, Vesuvius in Naples, and Hecla in Ice- 
land. 

In an eruption frojn the second of these, some 
centuries ago, the two cities Pompeii and Her«ti*- 



ABTS ArfD SClEI^Cj;^. 361 

laneum were buried by the ashes and lava, and lay 
concealed in that state for several ages, till they 
were lately discovered. Pliny the elder, too, 
the famous naturalist, perished on the occasion. 
Pliny the younger, author of the epistles that go 
by his name, has given us an account of this 
catastrophe in one of his letters, he being present 
at one of the eruptions, but he escaped by sea.*.. 
As a model of epistolary writing, and of the 
purest composition, every young person should 
read Melmoth's translation of Pliny's letters. 

The bowels of these burning mountains con- 
tain sulphur, bitumen, and other inflammable 
matter, the effects of which are more dreadful 
than those of thunder or of gun powder, and 
they have in all ages astonished mankind, and 
desolated the earth. 

There was a most dreadful eruption at Etna 
consisting of liquid fire and burning matter, in 
1693 ; it destroyed 15 or 16 different towns, 18 
estates, and more than 90,000 souls. 

Within the last thirty years there has not 
been fewer than nine several eruptions of Mount 
Vesuvius, besides many preceding ones. That 
which happened on the 15th of June, 1794, 
was preceded by earthquakes, first opening in 
two places, from which issued columns of black 
smoke, mixed with liquid inflamed matter; and 
afterwards more mouths were opened. Explo- 
sions, louder than thunder, with sharp reports, 
as from the heaviest artillery, proceeded from 
all of them. The lava flowed about four miles 
m four hours ; the greatest part of Torre del 
Greco, a mile from Portici, was thereby destroy- 
ed, or so much injured as to be uninhabitable. 

Though 1 r,000 inhabitants were driven out 
of the town of Torre del Greco, not more than 



i62 AN EPIT0ME OF THE 

fifteen lives were lost there. A promontory of 
70 feet high in some places, and about a quarter 
of a mile broad, has been formed by the la^a 
"which ran over the greatest part of this town 
to the sea. 

The lava covered and totally destroyed above 
5,000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated 
land ; and the temporary damage done to the 
vineyards on the Somma side, and for many 
miles round, by the ashes, was immense. In 
some places they were not less than four feet 
deep. 

^. Have earthquakes been frequent ? 

A* Few years pass without an earthquake in 
some part of the world ; we have accounts of 
them recorded in all ages, and in all countries 
there are vestiges of volcanic matter.. ..that of 
1783, in Calabria, which produced terrible effects 
there and in Sicily, is memorable.. ..it had not 
entirely ceased for two years. 

A remarkable volcano appeared in the ocean 
in 1810, within sight of St. Michaels, one of the 
Azores ; and it continued with various inter- 
missions eight months, spouting up in the air 
volumes of fire and smoke* 



ARTS XNJ) SCIENCES, 265 

CLASS IX.-..LESSON VIIL 

OF WATER SPOUTS. 

^e What account can you give of water 
sipouts ? 

A. Our venerated countryman. Dr. Franklin, 
among his other curious and useful discoveries, 
has explained this most satisfactorily. He ac- 
counts for them by the same natural causes as 
whirlwinds, which he attributes to the rarefac- 
tion of the air, and that they seem to be intended 
by the author of nature as one of the means to 
supply the earth with moisture after exhaustion 
by evaporation from the heat of the sun. 

^ How does this agree with facts ? 

A. Perfectly ; for water spouts are very rare- 
ly seen but in warm latitudes. 

^ But they have been sometimes seen very 
far north ? 

A. Yes ; there are a few instances recorded 
in the Philosophical transactions of London ; 
one of which took up the whole of the water in 
the channel of Topsham, in 1694; another which 
was seen in the Downs in ITOl. They have 
been seen frequently in the Mediterranean, and 
one of those is described so particularly as to 
merit notice. 

Northward of Cape Bona, on the Barbary 
coast, distant 10 leagues, the night having been 
very stormy, with thunder and lightning ; about 
nine in the morning, the clouds looked dismal, 
black, and overcharged with rain ; in the N. E. 
quarter appeared three water spouts ; that in 
the middle being the greatest seemed as large as 
the mast of a ship, and appeared to be only a 



20 it AN EPITOME OF THE 

league and a half distant, so that its real bulk 
must have been at least three times that of the 
apparent size. The other two spouts did not 
appear to be more than half the size of that in 
the middle. All of them were dark as the cloud 
above them ; and all smooth without knot or 
irregularity, but all smaller at the lower end 
like a sword ; sometimes one of them would 
bend, and again become straight ; occasionally 
diminishing to the apparent size of a rope, and 
renewing its size ; occasionally disappearing 
and again becoming gross. 

^ Are there not many extraordinary things 
said oftheir effects ? 

A. It is certainly true that near the tropics, 
particularly in Bengal, where those spouts are 
for several months visible almost daily ; that in 
heavy showers of rain vast quantities of small 
fish from half an inch to an inch and half long 
are poured down on the earth from the clouds, 
which are supposed to have been formed by 
these spouts. 

Seamen assert that there are two kinds of 
spouts, one which is a rising of the water to- 
wards the clouds like a funnel ; and the other 
when the water descends. In the former in- 
stance, the water is carried up with a noise like 
the sound of a spinning top, from which the 
French call them Trombs : they move from 
place to place with the wind, and it is said that 
if a ship comes in their course it is destroyed. 
Seamen also say that they us\ially fire at them 
when they approach, and if they hit them the 
spout breaks with a great noise, and no mischief 
follows. 

^ What is the appearance of the Wate:? 
Spout ? 



ARTS AXD SCrENCEJl. 265 

A* Annexed are two drawings which give a 
%^Yy faithful picture of this phenomenon. 

Fig. I. aa is a large body of sea water rising 

in the form of a spiral column into the air. 

bb The sea agitated around the base of the 

column. 
cc A watery cloud, or mist, elevated to a vast 

height. 
dd The vortex in which it terminates. 
£6 ff The descending spout from the dark 

cloud above. 
gg The cloud from whence the spout descends 
by the vertiginous motion of the air, in a 
whirl. 
Fig. II. Exhibits a spout seen near the 
island of St. Helena, by which it appears 
that the neighborhood of land affects the 
form and course of action of the spout. 
^. Are these all of the same appearance ? 
A. The drawings give a very accurate idea of 
them generally ; but some do not appear so 
beautiful ; and many of them to the amount of 
twenty or thirty at a time are seen in the neigh- 
borhood of the equator. 

OF THE IRIS, OR RAINBOW, AND HALOS, 

^. What Is the Iris or Rainbow ? 

A. A beautiful arch in the heavens, ornament* 
ed with various colors, which is seen only when 
the spectator turns his back to the sun, and 
when it rains on the opposite side. Its colors 
are, beginning from the under part, violet, 
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red..^. 
These are called the seven primary colors. 

^. What was the opinion of the ancients cgn- 
cerning this meteor ? 

2 



266 AX EPIT0M1E Oi' THE 

A. Its beautiful colors struck antiquity witfi 
amazement. To the philosophers Pliny and 
Plutarch, it appeared as an object which we 
might admire, but could not explain. The 
priests always preferred the wood on which the 
rainbow had appeared to rest for their sacrifices ; 
vainly supposing that this wood had a perfume 
peculiarly agreeable to their deities. Some 
philosophers of the obscure ages began to form 
more just conceptions concerning this meteor ; 
but as they were ignorant of the true cause of the 
colors, they left the task unfinished for the in- 
comparable Newton to complete. 

^. Please to explain how the rainbow is pro- 
duced, and how it acquires its beautiful ap- . 
pearance ? 

A, It is made, according to his theory, by the 
rays of the sun being refracted by the drops of 
rain falling on mist, and thence reflected to the 
spectator's eye. The rays of the sun falling on 
the drops of rain, fall on the eye of the specta- 
tor, who must be between the sun and the rain in 
order to see the rainbow ; the drops being suc- 
cessively higher than each other, the rays least 
refracted produce red, those most refracted pro- 
duce violet, and the intermediate as in the above 
order. 

^ There are sometimes two rainbows at the 
same time, how are they accounted for ? 

A. The interior bow is produced by one re- 
flection of the rays of the light, the exterior and 
fainter is produced by two reflections, and if you 
will attend to it you will find that their colors 
are in a contrary arrangement : an easy expe- 
riment proves the cause of the rainbow ; provide a 
transparent glass globe, and fill it with pure 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 2G7 

water, hang it in the sunshine and view it in 
such a position, as that the rays which come 
from the globe to the eye, may, with the sun's 
rays, include an angle of about 42 degrees, the 
spectator will see a full red color in that side of 
the globe opposite to the sun ; and if the angle 
be made less by depressing the sun or raising 
the eye, the other colors will appear in suc- 
cession. 

All the colors of the rainbow maybe produced 
by making the rays of the sun pass through a 
transparent prism of glass. 

^. You have said nothing of the rainbows that 
sometimes appear by night during moonlight ; — 
what think you of them \ 

A. The lunar rainbow is formed exactly in 
the same manner^ by the bright beams of the 
moon striking upon the bosom of a shower. 

^. How do you account for that lucid ring 
we see diffused round the moon, called a halo ? 

A* This appearance is also called the corona^ 
or crown, from its encircling the sun, moon, or 
other planets ; and they sometimes exhibit the 
prismatic colors, like the rainbow. As t' -s 
mostly appears in a misty or frosty season.^ we 
may suppose it occasloiied by the refraction of 
light on the moist or frozen particles of the air. 



^S AN EPIXaME OY THE 

CLASS IX....LESSON IX. 

OF ELECTRICITY. 

4; WHAT is electricity ? 

A. The science of electricity is that by which 
the principles and causes of thunder and light- 
ning are accounted for by mechanical experi- 
ment ; and by which houses, ships, and other 
jelevated objects, may be protected from the 
violence of lightning. 

As a substance, or principle of nature, subtle 
and in general invisible, denominated the 
electric fluid, w^hich appears to pervade all 
nature, and to enter largely into the elementary 
causes of vegetable and animal life. 

S^. Whence is it derived ? 

A. From electrum^ which means amber, a 
substance the attractive power of which was ob- 
served 603 years before the Christian era. 

^. Is electricity then an ancient discovery ? 

A. By no means ; mere mechanical electricity 
or the productions of sparks and attractions by- 
machinery, was known about the beginning of 
the 1 /th century, and some publications made 
on the subject by Dr. William Gilbert; about 
1733, Mr. Grey and the abbe Nollet gave some 
account of experiments of theirs ; but the disco- 
very and demonstration belong to America, and 
to the city of Philadelphia, of the identity of the 
electric fluid and lightning. 

^. Who was the author of this discovery? 

A. The venerated man, Benjamin Franklin, 
who by his sagacity and genius reduced the fact 
to prooi by means simple and surprizing. 

^. At what period did Dr. Franklin mak<" 
this discovery ? 



AHTS AND SCIENCES. 



'^9 



Ai The first account!^ of his experiments pub- 
lished, are dated 28th March, 1747, at Philadel- 
phia, from that period his experiments were 
continued for several years. 

^ What is its nature? 

A. Electricity is of t\yo kinds, positive and 
negative; the first is that state of a body when it 
contains more than the usual proportion distri- 
buted through other parts of the universe ; the 
latter is when a body contains less than the due 
proportion ; and both or either rnay be produced 
artificially, as well as naturally. 

^. How does it operate ? 

A. There are bodies which are called electrics^ 
these are non-conductors^ or have the power of 
stopping the communication between bodies,, 
such as glass, amber, sealing wax, rosin ; these 
are also called electrics, per se, or by them- 
selves. 

There are other substances called non-eiectrics^ 
which though incapable of being excited, can in 
certain circumstances convey the electric power 
from one body to another ; these also are called 
conductors^ the most perfect of which are water, 
metals, charcoal. An electric machine being 
prepared, and a conductor being presented to it, 
the electric fluid will pass ; but if a non-electric, 
such as glass or rosin, is interposed, none will- 
pass. 

^. The subject is interesting; I wish to be 
more particularly acquainted with it* 

A* The best explanation I can give is in the' 
words of Dr. Franklin himself, which I find in 
his works , it was written m 1752, wherein he 
explams the grand experiment by which he drew 
lightning from the clouds. It is dated October- 
z2 



270 AN EPITOME OF THE 

19, 1752, and appeared in the Gentleman's Ma- 
gazine. 

**^ Make a small cross of two light slips af 
*' cedar, the arms so long as to reach to the four 
*^ corners of a large silk handkerchief when ex- 
'' tended ; tie the corners of the handkerchief to 
*^ the extremity of the cross ; so you have the 
'"'' body of a kite f which being properly accom- 
*•' modated with a tail, loop, and string, will rise 
^^ in the air like those made of paper, but being 
'' of silk is fitter to bear the wet and wind of a 
'' thunder gust without tearing* To the top of 
*' the upright stick of the cross is to be fixed a 
*' very sliarp pointed wire, rising a foot or more 
^' above the wood. To the end of the twine 
**' next the hand, is to be tied a silk ribbon, and 
^* where the silk and twine join a key may be 
" fastened. This kite is to be raised when a 
^^ thunder gust appears to be coming on, and 
^^ the person who holds the string must stand 
^^ within a door or window^ or under some cover, 
^' so that the ribbon may not be wet : and care 
''must be taken that the twn^ne does not touch 
''*' the frame of the door or window. As soon 
'^" as any of the thunder clouds come over the 
'^^ kite, the pointed wire will draw the electric 
'^ fire from them, and the kite with all the twine 
•' will be electrified, and the loose filaments cf 
** the twine will stand out every way, and be 
*' attracted by an approaching finger. And when 
'*^ the rain has wet the kite and twine, so thai 
^•^ it can conduct the electric fire freely, you will 
'' find it stream out plentifully from the key oa 
*^ the approach of your knuckle. At this key 
** the piiial may be charged, and from electric 
*^ fire thus obtained, ardent spirits may b^ 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 271 

'* kindled, and all other electrical experiments 
*' be performed which are usually done by the 
'' help of a rubbed glass globe or tube, and 
*' thereby the sameness of the electric matter 
^' with that of lightning completely demour 
« strated- " B. F.'' 

^. But how is this applied to the protection 
of houses ? 

A* This Dr. Franklin had also the glory to 
invent. " In September, 1752, he erected an 
iron rod to draw the lightning down into his 
house, in order to make some experiments, in 
which he succeeded ; he discovered the twa 
kinds of electricity, and that the force of thun» 
der very often proceeds from the earth to the 
clouds, as well as from the clouds to the earth ; 
that the cause of thunder and lightning is by the 
collision of two bodies, one positively and the 
other negatively charged.. ..or with too much in 
one and too little in the other ; that the effort to 
become equal causes the thunder; and the 
stream of lightning is the same as the electric 
spark ; metal conductors therefore carry on the 
communication between the clouds and the 
earth, and prevent the consequences that other- 
wise would result.'^ 

THE AURORA BOREALIS. 

^. What is the cause of the Aurora Borealis^, 
or that shining light which is often seen by night 
in the heavens, and which the vulgar call north- 
ern lights or streamers ? 

A. Formerly it was believed to be the result 
of certain nitrous and sulphurous vapors, thinly 
spread through the atmosphere ab©ve the clouds, 
where they fermented, and taking fire, the expla* 



27% AN EPITOME OF THE 

sion of one portion kindled the next, and the 
flashes succeed one another till all the vapour is 
set on fire, the streams whereof seem to con- 
verge towards the zenith of the spectator, or 
that point of the heavens which is immediately 
over his head. 

^. Whence is its name derived ? 

A* Its name implies the northern light, be- 
cause it was first noticed, and for some time sup- 
posed to be peculiar to the northern hemisphere y 
but it has been since discovered in the southern 
hemisphere also, and there it is called Aurora 
Australis. It usually appears in the winter, and 
during frosty weather. It exhibits a roseate or 
Aurora reddish color, with corruscations that 
give a tinge of yellow and of purple ; the vibra- 
tions are present and visible by the pale light 
which they throw forth like the pulmonary 
throbs of the phospher or fire fly; they appear 
to rise from the earth in undulations or waves, 
and move with velocity to the zenith ; and a 
sound is often heard like the rustling of silk 
gai^ments. 

^ When was this meteor first seen ? 

A, It is believed by many judicious writers, 
that the ancient traditions and stories of battles 
in the air, may be resolved by the aurora borea- 
ii^.... which sometimes exhibits an activity of 
motion, concussion, and repercussion, which 
conveys an idea not very remote from military 
action , in some parts of Europe this action has 
caused them to be called merry dancers 

^ What accounts are there of them more 
modern ? 

A, There are accounts of it so early as No- 
vember 14, 1574 5 6th March, 1716, which was 



ARTS AND SGIJBNCES. ^7^ 

veiy brilliant ; but it does not appear either fre- 
quently or atstated periods, or of equal brilliancy. 

^. What is its elevation from the earth ? 

A. That of 1737, was found by Boscovitch to 
be 825 miles high ; and M. Marian determines 
its mean height at 464 miles. 

■^ How has it been accounted for latterly? 

A. The most satisfactory account is allowed 
to have been given by the venerable Franklin, 
in 1779, and demonstrates it to be the combin- 
ed effect of rarefaction and condensation of the 
air, acted upon in the operation or change by 
electricity. 

^. When was it discovered in the south ? 

A. By Captain Cook, the celebrated navigator^ 
in 1770, and afterwards in 1773. The Aurora 
Australis was not tinged with red, but of a clear 
white, the corruscations of which were a sudden 
disappearance and reappearance, without the 
tremulous and vibratory motion which has uni- 
formly appeared on the northern. It is not 
known to produce any effects on our earth or 
atmosphere. 



S74 AN EPITOME OF THK 

AN EPITOME 

OF THE 

4UTS .IJ^D SCIKJ>rCES. 



CLASS X-..XESSON I. 

OF GEOLOGY. 

^. AS in our early lessons we have treated 
of cosmography, or the system of the universal 
creation, and of geography, or the general dis- 
tribution of the surface of the earth, we should 
now enquire concerning the composition and 
form and properties of the earth ; under what 
heads shall we do this ? 

A. As astronomy describes the particulars of 
the heavenly bodies ; and chemistry the pro- 
perties of natural substances, so we should by 
geology, study the structure and formation of 
the globe, the materials of which it is composed, 
the changes it appears to have undergone ; and 
this branch of science, with chemistry and 
mineralogy, render our knowlege of the sub- 
stances of the earth clear and satisfactory ; while 
botany, and the enquiries into animated nature, 
complete the whole. 

^ What is most remarkably deserving of 
regard in geology ? 

A. The phenomena which it presents to our 
senses, the solid masses of which our earth is com- 
posed, their variety and the consistency of their 
distribution, though in apparent disorder. 

^ What do you mean by a consistent distri- 
bution ? 



AUTS AITD SCIEXCES. 275 

A* The depth into which menhave penetrated 
ilito the earth is not very considerable ; but so 
far as they have gone, the appearances of strata 
and the uniformity of the masses has caused a 
classification to be made of all the masses into 
two kinds, 1, Primitive, 2. Secondary masses. 

^. Which are the distinct characters ? 

A. Among the first are the rocks composed 
principally of silex, alumina, and magnesia ; 
making intermixed, granite, gneiss, mica slate, 
clay slate, primitive trap, siennite, topaz rock, 
quartz rock, flinty slate, porphyry, serpentine, 
^nd limestone of a particular character ; in the 
secondclass are placed secondary limestone, phos- 
phate of lime, gypsum, sand stones, white stone, 
chalk, and flint. 

^. What characterises and distinguishes these 
primitive bodies ? 

A. They form universally the fundamental 
rock,vof the other class of all denominations ; 
they contain no petrifactions, no mechanical 
deposits, but are throughout pure chemical 
productions ; there is a kind of middle class, 
which are, secondary porphyry, pearl stone 
porphyry, obsidian porphyry, siennite, and pitch 
stone, which contain a very small portion of me- 
chanical deposit, yet are complete chemical for- 
mations, contain little carbonic matter, and never 
any petrifactions. 

^. How are these l^eleived to have been so 
formed ? 

A. They are beleived to have been formed 
after a great subsiding and a sudden rising of 
the waters, which are supposed to have covered 
the whole earth. 

^. What was the next stage ? 



^76 AX EPITOME or THE 

A. There is another semi-class, which pre* 
cedes the secondary and completes the link, 
those are called transition rocks, because they 
are supposed to have had their origin when the 
face of the globe was changing from one condi- 
tion to another, when the waters were subsiding, 
and vegetation commencing. 

^. How are they distinguished ? 

A. In these the first slight traces of petrifac- 
tions and mechanical deposits are found, they are 
transition limestone, transition trap, grey-wacke, 
and flinty slate ; the petrifactions found in this 
class are corallines, ecrenites, pertacrinites, 
entrochites, and trochites, the Darbyshire spar 
is of this character ; and as the primitive were 
purely chemical, so here the secondary are 
chemical mingled with a small portion of me- 
chanical depositions ; and are supposed to have 
been produced by the dissolution of parts of the 
tops of mountains which, carried down by the 
waters, formed these compounds ; they are 
j^sually found at the base of mountains, flat and 
of great extent and seldom of great height; the 
rocks called^(?^^2 rocks abound with these marks, 
and are usually found in horizontal strata. 

Countries composed of these secondary rocks 
are not so rugged in appearance, nor so marked 
by rapid inequalities, as those in which the pri- 
mitive and transition rocks prevail. The 
formations of the second class are supposed to 
be: 1. First or old red sand stone. 2. First 
or oldest floetz lime stone. 3. First or oldest 
floetz gypsum. 4. Second or variegated sand 
stone. 5. Second floetz gypsum. 6. Second 
floelz or shell lime stone% 7. Third floetz 
sandstone. 8. Rock salt formation. 9. Chalk 



ART3 AND StlElSTCKS. 277 

forma:tion. 10. Floetz trap forraation. 11. 
Independent coal formation. 1 2. Newest floetz 
trap formation. 

^. Whence arise these formations ? 

A* Supposing the whole earth covered with 
water, and gradually subsiding to its present 
state, the flowing of the waters from the highest 
acclevities must have carried down any soft or 
soluble matter ; we know that there are shells 
of fish found on the highest mountains ; and we 
"find in the vallies remains of animals and vegeta- 
bles ; heaps of trees and plants ; shells and other 
marine productions, vast horns of stags and 
skeletons of the mammoth, magalonyx, and 
elephant, and bitumenous fossils : the agency of 
heat and air acting on those bodies that had beea 
covered by water, had a share in producing 
<3issolution ^ and, as we find at this day, the rivers 
conveyed the particles so long as they had vo- 
lume and force to keep them in solution till they 
were arrested by distribution over a large surface, 
or rolled so easily along as that their gravity 
deposited them ; hence we find at the mouths 
of all large rivers, the Delta of the Nile, the 
Ganges, the Mississippi, islands formed from the 
deposits brought down by the waters ; the soil 
thus formed is called alluvial, and of course of 
more recent formation. 

^. Do geologists distinguish each ? 

A. They divide them into two classes.. ..1. 
Those which are formed in mountainous coun- 
tries and found in vallies, composed of rolled 
masses, gi^avel, sand, fragments of metallic ores, 
sometimes loam, and different kinds of precious 
stones* 2. Those which are peculiar to lov»r 
flat countries, loam, peat, sand, bog iron^ breccia, 
ores of various kinds, tufa, and stalactite. 
A A 



278 AX EPITOME 01? THE 

CLASS X....LESSON U. 

MINERALOGY, 

^. In order to comprehend geology more 
distinctly, you say we must understand miner- 
alogy ? 

A. As geologj' treats of external appearances, 
and the great features of nature, mineralogy 
descends into particulars ; where geology stops 
mineralogy begins, and forms a more minute and 
particular science. 

:^. In what does it consist ? 

A. It is the art or method of describing mi- 
neral substances with so much accuracy and 
precision, that each may be distinguished from 
every other, by means of their external or physi- 
cal characters ; and by examining them by aid 
of the art of chemistry, 

^. How is the subject arranged ? 

A, Into four classes of substances — 1. the 
earthy. 2. the saline. 3. the inflammable. 4. 
the metallic. 

^ How are the earthy class characterized ? 

A. They compose the greater part of what 
geologists call the crust of the earth, and gene- 
rally form a covering to the rest. They are not 
remarkable for being heavy, brittle, or light 
colored ; they are little disposed to chrystalize, 
are uninflammable, in alow temperature, insipid, 
and without much smell. 

^. What of the saline minerals ? 

A. They are moderately heavy, soft, sapid, 
and possess some degree of transparency. 

^ The inflammable class of minerals ? 

A. They are light, brittle, mostly opake, of a 
yellow, brown, or black color, seldom chrysta- 
lized, and never feel cold. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. £79 

^ The metallic I suppose differ from them 
all? 

A, They certainly do, for they are heavy, 
generally opake, tough, malleable, cold, not 
easily inflamed, and by exhibiting a great variety 
of colors of a peculiar lustre. 

^ Is this the only classification? 

A. By no means ; the particular fossils are so 
many that the classification is necessarily ex- 
tensive and very minute in particulars ; they 
are divided into genera, species, sub-species, 
and kinds ; they are first described by their ex- 
ternal character, which are either generic or 
specific j the generic character has no reference 
to difference of color, weight, or lustre ; the 
differences in these properties belong to their 
specific character. Generic character may be 
either general or particular ; in the first are em- 
braced all that is common to minerals generally ; 
in the last those that are found peculiar to some. 
The particular generic external chiuacter is 
also divided into : 1. Color, of which all mine- 
rals have some one or other : 2. Cohesion of 
parts into solid, friable, and fluid. 

^. How is color treated of? 

A. The colors white, grey, black, blue, green, 
yellow, red, brown, have all a class of modifi- 
cations of each ; and besides these several colors 
and their shades, they are characterised as clear, 
dark, light, pale ; they may have a tarnished 
appearance ; a changeability, an eridiscence, an 
opalescence, a permanent alteration, a delineation 
of figure or pattern, as dotted, spotted, clouded, 
flamed, striped, veined, dendritic, or uniform. 

^. This must lead to great accuracy ; is the 
cohesion of particles so clearly marked ? 



2S& xy EnTOME Of^ THE 

A. Equally so, and affording amusement and 
interest; the minerals are for this purpose di- 
vided into solid, friable, and fluid. 

^. Hov/ are the solid characterised ? 

A, Their parts have a strong coherence or 
hardness not easily movable, and in their exter- 
nal aspect three things are regarded. 1. the 
shape. 2. the surface. 3. the lustre ; the 
shape again may be common to many, particular, 
regular, or extraneous ; regard is had also to 
the fracture, and to certain circumstances of the 
touch. 1. hardness. 2. tenacity. 3. frangibi- 
luy* 4. flexibility. 5. adhesion to the tongue.. 
6. unctuosit}/. T. coldness. 8. weight. 

*x; ^Vhat of the friable minerals ? 

ui. Their character is drawn from the shape, 
which may be massive, disseminated, thinly 
roaiing, spurious, or dendritic ; from lustre, 
glimmering or dull^ dusty or scaly; from soiling 
<^r coloring ; and lastly, from their looseness or 
fi'iabiiity. 

^ What of the fluid minerals? 

A, There are only two kinds, which include 
three varieties : 1. the lustre is either metallic 
as in mercury, or resinous as in rock oiL 2. 
transparency as in naptha, turbid as in mineral 
oil, or opaque as in mercury. 3. fluidity as in 
mercury, or viscid as in mountain tar. 

^. Is there not a new quality in metallic 
substance ? 

A. You refer to potassium, that metal is very 
light, and when brought in contact with water 
dissipates in a bright flame. 

^ If the classification be not too extensive, 
or if it can be reduced, please to give an abstract 
ofit? 



AUTS AND SCIENCES* 281 

A. The first class is earthy fossils, of which 
the genus are eight. 

Genus I. Diamond, of which there is only 
one species, though it is divisible into kinds by- 
variety of shades ; it is hard in the highest de- 
gree, and has been proved to be pure carbon, or 
charcoal. 

Genus II. Zircon. 2 species, several varie- 
ties. 

Genuslll* Flint. 34 species, as chrysoberyl, 
chrysolite, olivine, angite, vesuviane, lewzite, 
melamite, garget, pyrope^ grenatite, spinelle, 
sapphire, corundum, diamond spar, emery, topaz, 
emerald, beryl, schorl, thumerstone, iron flint, 
quartz, horn stone flint, chalcedony, agate, 
heliotrope, plasma, chrysopras, flinty slate, cat's 
eye, prebnite, zeolite, cross stone, agate stone ; 
several of these have varieties, as the zeolite has 
five; the schorl has two, one of which is the 
tourmaline ; the quartz has five, among which 
are amethyst, rock crystal, &c. 

Genus IV. Clay. 32 species ; jasper, opal, 
pitch stone, obsidian, pearl stone, pumice stone,, 
felspar, four sub-species : pure clay, porcelain 
earth ; common clayj six sub-species, as loam, 
potter's clay, earthy, and slaty ; pipe clay, varie- 
gated clay, clay stone, clay slate : poller or 
polishing stone, tripoli, alum stone, alum earth, 
alum slate, bituminous slate, drawing or plate 
slate, whet slate, clay slate, lepidolite, mica or 
glimmer, pot stone, chlorite, horn blende, basalt, 
wacke, clink stone, lava, green earth, lithomage, 
rock soap, yellow earth and umber. 

Genus V. Talc. 12 species j boks, asbestos^ 
fuller's earth, actylonite, &c. 

A a 2 ; 



/ 
/ 



2S2 AN EPITOME OT THE 

Genus VI. Cale. 20 species, among which 
are, chalk, limestone, marie, boracite, fluor^ 
gyps several kinds, selenite, and cube spar. 

Genus VII. Barytes. 2 species: 1. v\rithe- 
rite : 2. heavy spar, or baryte. 

Ge/2z/,y VIII. Strontian. 2 species: 1. stron- 
tian ; 2. celestine ; this has two sub-species ; 
fibrous, of a color between indigo andbluish grey j 
massive and in plates. 2. foliated, of a milky 
white falling into blue, found in sulphur beds. 

CLASS II. Fossil salts. 

Genus I. species 9. Natron or natural soda,, 
natural nitre, natural rock salt, natural sal am- 
moniac, epson salt, glauber salt, alum, hair salt, 
rock butter^ natural vitriol divided into three 
varieties, as iron, copper, and zinc, vitriol. Bo- 
rax appears to belong to this class, and a new 
article found in Greenland, called stallite» 

CLASS III. Inflammable fossils. 

Genus L Natural sulphur. 

Genus II. Bituminous, bitumen, and coal. 

Genus III. Graphite, 3 species, among which 
are mineral charcoal. 

Genus IV.^ Rosin. 1 species, amber, whit^ 
and yellow, 2 species, honey stone, melite. 

CLASS IV. Metallic fossils. 

Ge?2z/^XXI.l,pl3tina;2. gold; 3. mercury; 4. 
silver ; 5. copper; 6. iron; 7. lead; 8. tin; 9> 
bismuth; 10. zinc; 11. antimony; 12. cobalt; 
13. nickel; 14. manganese; 15. molybdena ; 
16* telluiium ; IT. uranium ; 18. chrome, &c^ 



ARTS AKXJ SCIENCES* 283 

CLASS X....LESSON IIL 

OF MINERALOGY. 

i^* Is this the only classification of this branch 
©f natural history ? 

A. No: like other sciences it is daily im- 
proving ; th^re is another, by which it is divided 
into seven classes* The scientific men of vari- 
ous nations, have formed systems which ap- 
proach very near to each other. 

^. As these are very important, and ought to 
be familiar to youth, please to give me some ac- 
count of them ? 

A. The first class is earths, which are distin» 
guished into five species... •!. Friable, or what 
may be converted into powder, but do notr 
harden in fire ; 2. Calcerous, or chalk-like ; 3. 
Gypseous, or such as may be converted into 
powder by fire, and then into stone by the addi- 
tion of water ; 4. Argillaceous, or such as 
hardened in the fire, as brick clay, pipe clay ; 5. 
Fusible, or vitrifiable, such as instead of being 
changed to lime or powder by fire are converted 
into glass. 

The second class is stones, of which there are 
also five species....!. Earthy, such as slates, and 
basaltes ; 2. Calcareous, such as are reducible 
to lime by fire, as limestone, marble, tufa, stalac* 
tites, &c. 3. Gypseous stone, such as plaister of 
paris or gypsum, and alabaster; 4. Argillaceous, 
which do not soften in water and harden in fire, 
as soap-stone, asbestos, talc, &c. 5. Vitrifiable, 
or fusible, which give fire, as flint, diamond, and 
the most valued jewels. 

The third class is salts. They dissolve ia 
Water, leave a strong taste upon the tongue, and 



2SJi AX EPITOME eF TUB 

dissolve by fire without smoke. They are di-^ 
vided into three genera, the acid, the alkaline, 
and the neutral....!. Among the acids are the 
muriatic, the sulphuric, and the nitrous; 2. The 
alkalies, have potash, soda, and volatile alkali ; 
3. The neutral have common table salt, borax, 
nitre, &c. 

The fourth class is bitumens, or combustible 
substances that emit smoke on exposure to 
heat ; as petroleum or rock oil ; amber, fossil 
pitch, and sulphur. 

The fifth class is semi-metals, or minerals 
which have the appearance of metals, but are 
not malleable, or which will break under the 
hammer and become volatile in fire ; among 
these are quick silver, antimony, zinc, calamine, 
bismuth and arsenic. 

The sixth class is metals, or hard mineral 
substances, which will melt m the fire, bend and 
stretch under the hammer. These are gold, 
silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead. 

The seventh class is denominated petrifac- 
tions or substances which have been changed 
into stone from a former state, such as wood, 
skeletons of animals, shells, plants, &c. These 
are classed in a scientific manner.. ..for example, 
petrified trees are anUed dendrites ; animals, 
^oolithes ; vegetables, phyloetithes ; &c. 

^. What of the rich metal, Gold r 

A. Gold is the heaviest, purest, and most due- 
tile of all metals. It is chiefly found in mines, 
though sometimes gold dust is found in the sand 
and mud of rivers, particularly in Guinea ; and 
hence the name of the largest British gold coin. 
There are gold mines in most countries in the 
world. The mines of Chili and Peru in Ame- 



AXIT3 AND SCIEXCEJ. 2S0 

1 ica, are the richest, though very fine gold is 
found in some parts of the East Indies. 

In the mountains of Thibet, or country of the 
Dali Lama, grains of gold are found in the rivu- 
lets and rivers ; in Ava, Pegu, and the islantis 
of Java and Sumatra, gold is also found* 

About the year 1 800, a gold mine was dis- 
covered in Ireland, and seized upon by the 
government. 

In our own country in 1803, a farmer of North 
Carolina discovered in a ravine made by the rain 
several grains of gold } upon further search, he 
found a considerable quantity, and one lump of 
pure gold, the largest perhaps ever found in the 
natural state, of 50 pounds weight. From this 
gold some Amexican eagles and half eagles have 
been coined. 

In 1804, a mine had been opened in ChestCF 
county, about 15 miles from Philadelphia, in 
which a small quantity of gold ore was found, 
but not sufficient to reward labor. 

Of all the properties of gold its ductility is the 
most surprising. A single ounce of gold may 
be extended by the gold beater's hammer to a 
surface of 150 square feet, and by the gold wire- 
drawers it can be extended to upwards of a 
thousand, yet remains so entire that the least 
flaw cannot be perceived, even by the help of the 
microscope. 

^ What have you to observe with regard to 
silver ? 

A. Silver is a rich white metal, and next to 
gold the most ductile. There are silver mines 
in all parts of the world ; but those of Peru and 
some other parts of America, particularly those 
©f Potosi, are by far the richest, and yield tho 



2S6 AN EPITOME or rHE 

ore In as great plenty as when first discovered ; 
with this only difference, that the veins which 
were then ahiiost on the surface of that famous 
mountain, are now sunk so deep, that the work- 
men go down to them by a descent of almost 
four or five hundred steps. Silver Is found in 
quantities more or less blended with lead. 

^ What kind of substance is copper ? 

A. It is a hard, dry, heavy, ductile metal, 
abounding in vitriol and ill-digested sulphur, and 
found in most parts of Europe, but particularly 
in Sweden. It is dug up in large fragments of 
ore, which are first beaten small, then washed to 
separate the earthy parts from it, then smelted 
and cast into a kind of moulds to form large 
blocks, called salmons, or copper cakes. This 
is the ordinary copper. There is a finer kind 
called rose copper, and a still finer called virgin 
copper, which is sometimes, but seldom, found 
pure in mines. It is the cheapest metal used for 
coin. 

There are several copper mines in the United 
States, but the people are too happy and prospe- 
rous to render it worth while to work them.... 
and a vast encrease of population, or a great 
scarcity of copper in the commercial world alone 
can Induce them to be fully wrought. The 
foreign export of the ore, appears to be at present 
the most eligible use of copper mines. The ore 
has been exported to England from a mine iu 
New Jersey, with a handsome profit. Near 
Lake Superior, the finest copper ores on earth, 
were discovered by general Wilkinson of the 
United States' army, a few years ago. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 287 



CLASS X...XESSON IV. 



? 



MINERALOGY. 

^. WHAT kind of substance is iron 

A. Iron is a hard, dry, fusible, and ductile 
metal, consisting of earth, salt, and sulphur, but 
all impure, ill mixed, and ill digested, which 
renders it liable to rust. By often heating it in 
the fire, hammering it, and letting it cool of it- 
self, it is softened ; by extinguishing it when 
hot, in water, it is hardened. There are a grea 

number of iron works in the United States 

Though iron is the cheapest, it is certainly the 
most useful of all kinds of metal, and seems 
indispensably necessary to the carrying on of 
every art and manufacture. Nay, it appears to 
be the great means of polishing and civilizing 
mankind ; at least, much more so, than the more 
precious metals. Pennsylvania and Maryland 
have the finest and greatest number of iron 
furnaces in the United States ; but there are a 
number of iron furnaces in the eastern and 
southern states also. There have been instances 
of nations possessed of gr&at quantities of gold, 
and who yet remained in a state of barbarism : 
this, as is well known, was the case with the Ame- 
ricans, upon the first discovery of this country 
by Columbus ; but there never yet was an in- 
stance of a nation which understood the art of 
making or manufacturing iron, but attained, in 
time, to at least some degree of civilization. 

^ What kind of substance is lead ? 

A. Lead is a coarse, heavy, soft metal, con- 
taining a little mercury, some sulphur, and a 
great deal of earth. It is found in most couu- 



2SB AN EPITOME OF THE 

tries. The various purposes to which it may 
be applied are pretty generally known. The 
greatest lead mines in the world are in our new 
territory of Louisiana. 

^* What is tin ? 

A. It is a whitish metal, not so hard as silver, 
nor so soft as lead ; but though not so soft, is 
yet more easily melted. The stannaries of tin 
mines in Cornwall and Devonshire, in England, 
furnish the greatest part of the tin that is con- 
sumed in all Europe. Six pounds of brass, and 
fifteen pounds of lead, to an hundred pounds of 
tin, make the composition called pewter 

^ What is mercury ? 

A. iNIercury, or, as it is vulgarly called^ 
quicksilver, is an imperfect metal, neither duc- 
tile nor malleable, that is, neither capable of 
being drawn into length, nor spread into breadih 
by the hammer. It consists entirely of a fluid 
matter^ resembling melted silver. It is found 
chiefly in Hungary, Spain, Italy, and Peru. — 
The greatest part of what is used in Europe is 
brought from the mines of Friuli in Italy, for- 
merly belonging to Austria, now in the posses- 
sion of the French. 

The chief properties of mercury are, that ex- 
cept gold, it is the heaviest of all metals. It is 
also the most fluid of all bodies ; that is, its parts 
cohere the least to each other, and are the most 
easily separated. It is extremely volatile, and 
may be turned into fume by a very gentle heat. 
It easily enters, and closely adheres to gold, less 
easily to silver, with difficulty to copper, and to 
iron not at all. 

The weight of a cubic inch of each of the 
seven m.etals, viz. gold, mercury, lead, silver, 
copper, iron, and tin, is as follows ; 



Qz, 


Z)r. 


Gr. 


12 


2 


52 


8 


6 


8 


7 


o 
O 


30 


5 


5 


28 


5 


6 


-.56 


6 


1 


24 


4 


6 


ir 



MITS AND SOIEiSCES. 281> 



Uolcl, 

Mercury, - - 

Lead, - - ~ 

Silver, - - - 

Copper, 

Iron, - - » 

Tin, ... - 

•^ What is the diamond? 

A. The diamond, by the ancients called ada- 
mant, is the most valuable of all the precious 
stones. Its goodness consists in its water or 
color, lustre, and weight, and its defects are 
flaws, veins, specks of red and black sand, and 
a blueish or yellowish cast. 

Diamonds are found at Golconda, and in the 
Bahar mountains in the East Indies, in mines 
very near the surface. A diamond is the hard- 
est of all gems, insomuch that it can be only cut 
and ground by its own substance. 

The manner of preparing diamonds is first to 
rub them hard against each other, and the dust 
which is thus rubbed off the stones, serves to 
grind and polish them; and this is done by 
means of a mill, which turns awheel of soft iron, 
sprinkled over with diamond dust mixed vv^ith 
oil of olives. The same dust, well ground, and 
diluted with water and vinegar, is used in saw- 
ing of diamonds ; which is performed with an 
iron or brass wire, as fine as hair. 

There are many other precious stones ; and I 
will give you the names and colors of some of 
the principaL The ruby, which is next in value 
and esteem to the diamond, is of a crimson 
color somewhat inclining to a purple. The gar- 
aet is somewhat like it, and perhaps of the same 

B 3 



290 AN EPITOMfi OF THE 

species. The hyacinth is sometimes of a deep 
red, and sometimes of a yellow color. The 
amethyst is of a bright purple. The emerald a 
grass green. The beryl of a sea or blueish 
green. The sapphire, a sky blue. The topaz 
or chrysolite, is of a gold color. These are 
found in India and Brazil, and are all trans- 
parent. 

There are others that are opaque, or only 
half transparent ; such as the cornelian, which is 
the best, and of a pale red, sometimes border- 
ing upon orange ; the onyx, of a greyish cast ; 
the torquois, something betw^een a blue and 
green ; and the lapis lazuli, which is studded 
with spots of gold, on an azure ground. 

OF THE LOADSTONE. 

^ What is the magnet or loadstone ? 

A* This wonderful stone is usually found in 
iron mines, and is produced in most parts of the 
world; in China, Bengal, Arabia, Hungary, 
Germany, and England. It is a heavy 'stone, 
something resembling the ore of iron, only clo- 
ser and more ponderous. 

It is endowed with some surprising qualities 
and powers* It attracts iron, which will adhere 
to it very strongly ; and this virtue is also com- 
municated to the iron so attracted. In every 
jliagnet there are two poles, one of which points 
northward, the other southward ; and if the 
magnet be divided into ever so many pieces, the 
two poles will be found in each piece. 

It is this property which has rendered it so 
useful in improving the art of navigation ; for 
this gave rise to the mariner's compass ; by 
means of which, a mariner can now conduct his 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 291 

ship to the East or West Indies, or even round 
the world, with as much ease, and as little dan- 
ger, as he could formerly make a voyage along 
the coast. 

^ Have the improvements in ship building, 
kept pace with those in navigation ? 

A. They no doubt have. To be convinced 
of this, one need only consider the infinite dif- 
ference there is between a first rate man of war, 
and an Indian canoe, which seems to be little 
better than a large butcher's trough ; and vtt 
this was probably the first form of all sailing ves- 
sels. 

Even after men had learned to build ships 
with more art and of a larger size, they never 
ventured out of sight of land without fear and 
trembling ; because they could not tell whether 
they were sailing east or west, north or south, 
or to what part of the world they were going ; 
but now, by the aid of the mag-net or loadstone^ 
in the darkest night, and in the midst ol the 
boundless ocean, they know the course they 
are steering, with as much certainty as if it were 
in broad day^ and within sight of land. 



292 AN EPITOME or TH3B 

CLASS X.,..LESSON V. 

CHEMISTRY. 

J^. CHEMISTRY appears to be now talked 
of more than any other science, will you give me 
some account of it ? 

A. It merits all the attention bestowed or 
that can be bestowed upon it, for it is the key to 
many other sciences, and has produced a more 
accurate knowlege of the operations of nature 
than was ever before known. 

^ What is its object ? 

A. The object of chemistry is to ascertain 
the properties of which all bodies are composed, 
and the manner in which they are combined 
with each other, and the properties they ac- 
quire by combination. Within the last 30 years 
only it has been carried to the greatest perfec- 
tion, and the vast discoveries which it has led 
to, has not only rendered a new language neces- 
sary for the science, but it has exploded many 
principles as false, which were before consider- 
ed as fixed. 

^. What is the best course to be pursued to 
obtain a correct knowlege of chemistry ? 

A. To take it up in small distinct parts, and 
pursue it step by step to greater extent ; it may 
lorthis purpose be distributed into fourbranches. 
1, What relates to simple bodies. 2. Compound 
bodies of two properties. 3. Compound bodies 
of more than two. 4. Bodies as they appear in 
the animal, vegetable, and mineral economy of 
nature. 

^. What do you call simple bodies "" 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. 293 

A. Sueh bodies as have not been decom- 
pounded or reduced to more than one peculiar 
property, they are divided into six classes. 1. 
Oxygen. 2. Simple combustibles. 3. Metals. 
4. Earths. 5. Caloric. 6. Light. 

^. Here I find some words that are new to 
me, but as you have said the knowlege of a science 
Is the knowlege of the language of that science, 
pray what is the meaning of the word or nature 
of the simple body called Oxygen ? 

A. This substance was discovered by Dr. 
Priestly in 1774, and is named from two Greek 
words, signifying the property that produces aci- 
dity, because one of its qualities is, when com- 
bined withcertain substances, to produce various 
acids, and such substances are called the bases of 
the acids so produced. 

^. Give me some example of this opera-:, 
tion? 

A. Take a glass tumbler and place some fresh 
leaves of any plant in it, then invert the tumbler 
in a bason of clear water, and expose it to the 
rays of the sun, there will appear to issue from 
the leaves through the water into the vacant 
part of the inverted tumbler, numerous bubbles 
of air, which collect in the top of the tumbler, 
and these are found to be oxygen gas, oroxygeu 
in an aeriform state. The same kind of gas or 
air is produced by heating nitre in close vessels* 
Ox}'gen is absorbed by combustible bodies, and 
converts them into acids. It is essential to the 
process of combustion, as it unites with bodies 
that burn, andencreases their weight and changes 
their properties. It is also essenti<il to respi- 
ration, as no animal can live in air which is de- 
prived of oxygen. 

bb2 



29i AN EPITOME OF TlfE 

.9. What do you call caloric? 

A. It has been very common to confoimd 
cause with effect ; and thus light has been fre- 
quently treated as proceeding from the same 
cause as heat ; so, also, as was observed by the 
immortal Locke, when near the fire, we feel the 
sensation of heat^ and then say the fire is hot.^.^ 
v/hen in fact, there is no more heat in the fire, 
than there is pain in the needle that pricks the 
finger : 'caloric^ then^ is that matter in nature, 
v/hich as- the cause of keat.,.,SiB oxygen is the 
cause of sourness, or acidity. 

^. How is this exemplified ? 

A* Dr. Franklin, in one of his letters, thus 
explains it : " While I am writing, part of my^ 
hand rests on the green cloth, and another, on 
rhe brass lock of my desk ; the cloth and the 
lock are undoubtedly of the same temperature ; 
yet the part of my hand which is on the lock^ 
fe^ls colder, and really is so, than the other 
part that rests on the cloth ; this is because the 
metal is a better cond^actor, and carries off the 
heat from my hand." The cause of this differ- 
ence then, was, that the metal conducted the 
caloric out of the body, more than the cloth, and 
ihe cause of heat being withdrawn, the body 
from which it was withdrawn, became cold. 

J^. What are the simple combustibles ? 

A.* Substances capable of burning, which is 
combustion, there are five. 1. Sulphur^ a hard 
brittle yellow substance without smell unless it 
is heated, and almost without taste. It is 
foimd both pure and mixed ; and by means of 
fire m*ay be converted into an acid. 2. Phos-- 
fhoriis^ which is never found in a pure state, but 
usually united with oxygen, and it is then called 



ARTS AXD SCIENCES. 295 

phosphoric acid, which abounds in animal, ve- 
getable, and mineral substances. 3. Carbon^ 
commonly known by the name of charcoal, if a 
piece of wood be put into a crucible, covered 
with sand, and kept red hot, the wood becomes 
carbon, it being then freed from its earthy and 
saline parts. The precious gem, the diamond, 
is a perfect carbon. 4. Hydrogen is derived 
from two Greek words, signifying the capacity 
to produce water, it has been also called inflam- 
mable air ; it may be procured in the state of 
gas, that is combined with caloric and light, 
by pouring sulphuric acid diluted with twice its~ 
weight of water on iron filings. This is the gas 
w^ith w^hich balloons are filled. All combustion 
ceases on plunging a burning substance into this 
gas ; animals die in it almost instantly. It is 
produced from putrefaction, and by muddy or 
stagnant waters. Water was formerly consi- 
dered as a simple element, but water is now 
found to be composed of the proportions of 15 
parts hydrogen, and 85 oxygen. 5. Azcte^ so 
called from two Greek words, signifying ruaiit 
oflife^ because no animal can exist in it. It Is 
produced by pouring diluted nitrous acid ort 
muscular flesh, and applying a heat equal to 100 
of Fahrenheit's thermometer. 

^. The next class of substances which come 
within the range of chemistry is that of metals, 
how are they described ? 

A. The distinguishing character of metallic 
substances is brilliancy or metallic lustre, opaci- 
ty, fusibility ,^ and until very lately a superior 
specific gravity over that of other bodies. 

^. How comes it that this was changed lately ? 

A. A discovery of metallic properties in a 
body before supposed to be of a different ua- 



296 j4n epitome of tub 

ture, that is in common potash^ the base of which 
is found to be a metal, and without the proper- 
ty of greater gravity, it being very light and 
taking flame when brought into contact with 
water. 

^ What is this metal called, and how many 
kinds of metals are there ? 

A. This new metal makes the number 24— 

1 Gold 9 Nickel 17 Tung-sten 

2 Platinum 10 Zinc 18 Molybdenum 

3 Silver 11 Bismuth 19 Uranium 

4 Mercury 12 Antimony 20 Titanium 

5 Copper 13 Tellurium 21 Cror.dum 

6 Iron 14 Arsenic 22 Columbium 

7 Tin 15 Cobalt 23 Tantalium 

8 Lead 16 Manganese 24 Pottassium 

The first ten of these, as well as the last, are 
malleable, or capable of being formed into shape 
by the hammer ; the next four brittle and easily 
fused or melted ; the rest are brittle and fused 
with difficulty. When oxygen combines with 
any of these metals, it is called an oxyde of that 
metal : thus the rust of iron is an oxyde of iron., 

^. Give me a brief account of each of those 
metals ? 

A. Gold is well known ; it is the purest, most 
perfect and ductile, and unchangeable of the 
metals. It combines with a number of metals, 
and forms two oxydes, one purple and violet, the 
other yellow. 2, Platinum has been found only 
in South America, among gold ores ; and when 
pure, it is as white as silver, but not so bright. 
It is next to gold in malleability and ductilityc 
3. Silver is also well known for its whiteness 
and lustre ; it is ductile, malleable, laminable, 
and so tenacious, that a silver wire of one tenth 



AB'FS AJSD SCIENCES. 297 

of an inch thick, will support 270lbs# 4. Mer- 
cury, vulgarly called quicksilver, is white and 
brilliant, unless exposed to 39 degrees of cold ; 
in which state, it may be hammered like com- 
mon silver, without breaking. It combines 
with most metals, and in that state is called an 
amalgam. 5. Copper is also well knowm for 
its flexibility and usefulness, and mixes with 
most metals. It has two oxydes. 6. Iron 
is the most useful of all metals, and the most 
abundant, and is too well known to require des- 
cription. 7. Tin is white like silver when 
fresh, but becomes dull from exposure to the 
air. It is easily melted, and is frequently mixed 
with other metals. It is found in England, Su- 
matra, Japan and in the Andes of South 
America. 8. Lead is also well known, and 
is, next to iron, the most abundant of all 
metals. 9. Nickel is a white metal resembling 
silver ; it is found in various parts of Germany, 
and ife more malleable even than iron ; and like 
iron, is attracted by the load stone, and may be 
made a magnet of: when heated in an open 
vessel, it combines with oxygen, and assumes a 
green color. IQ. Zinc is by some called a semi- 
metal ; it has never been found in Europe, but 
abounds in China ; it is a brilliant white, w ith a 
shade of blue ; and is composed of a number of 
lamina or leaves, adhering to each other. It is 
between the malleable and the ductile metals ; 
but v/ants their properties itself ; though it com- 
bines with other metals, and with great utility. 
11. Bismuth is also a semi-metal, of a reddish 
or white yellow color, and lamellated texture, 
like zinc. ...it is hard and brittle, but will go to 
povfder under the hammer. It is more fusible 



29S AN EPITOME or TUB 

even than lead. 12. Antimony is also a seroi- 
metal, seldom found pure in its native state, but 
generally combined with sulphur ; in which 
state it is called sulphate of antimony ; and bro- 
ken, presents a black grey color, with rays of 
bright lustre diverging in every direction, with- 
out any common centre. When separated from 
the sulphur by fire and iron, it is called regulus 
of antimony : it is a principal ingredient in types 
for printing. It is from this mineral that the 
Asiatic females paint their eyelashes black. 13. 
Tellurium is found in Transylvania, of a blueish 
white ; it resembles regulus of antimony in its 
laminated form, but is very brittle. 14. Arse- 
nic, a semi-metal, is found as an oxyde or calx ; 
it is a deadly poison, and has the quality of des- 
troying the magnetic virtue of iron and other 
metals. 15. Cobalt is used mostly in pottery 
works and as a kind of paint, it is found in va- 
rious parts of Europe ; its metallic properties 
are very imperfect. 16. Manganese is found in 
an oxide white, black, or red, and is reduced to 
the metallic state by an extraordinary heat only ; 
it is used in bleaching and in many chemical 
uses. 17. Tungsten, found in Sweden, and in 
the language of that country meaning ponde- 
rous stone, this and the remaining imperfect 
metals are hitherto more curious than useful. 
Molybdenum is found in Swisserland, Saxony, 
and Sweden ; Uranium is found in Saxony ; 
Titanium is found in Cornwall, England ; no 
heat at present known is sufficient to melt it, 
Cromium, Columbium and Tantalium are, like 
Pottassium, and two others called Sodium 
and Cerium, more curious than viseful* 
i^. What are the earths ? 



ARTS ANl} SCIEIVCES. 299 

A. The earths we perceive in ordinary are 
all compounded substances ; but reduced by- 
chemistry to simple elements, are found to be 
of 9 different kinds. 1. Barytes, 2. Strontian, 
3. Lime, 4. Magnesia, 5* Ytria, 6. Glucina, 
r. Zirconia, 8. Silica, 9. Alumine. Every body 
possessing the following properties is an earth : 1 . 
Insolubility in water. 2. Little or no taste or smell. 
3. Incombustibility. 4. A capacity when pure, 
of assuming the form of a white powder. 

^. You have mentioned the word caloric, 
and said it was different from light ; is not the 
cause of heat and light the same, or are they not 
the same thing ? 

A. No.^. .light is a different substance ; ^nd 
each may be present whare the other is not.... 
Light consists of small particles moving in strait 
lines from luminous bodies, with inconceivable 
rapidity. Without light, plants assume only a 
white color ; exposed to light, they assume all 
their natural diversities. 

i^r What are compound bodies ? 

A. They are divided into two classes ; those 
of two bodies united, and those of more than 
two : of the first class there are five kinds. 1. 
Water. 2. Alcohol. 3. Oils. 4. Alkalis. 5-. 
Acids. 

^. Is water, then, a compound body ? 

A. Water, as well as earth, air, and fire, is 
composed of more than one property or sub- 
stance, it is found in four circumstances, solid, 
or as ice. ...liquid as we see it flowing... .vapor, 
as we see it in steam, smoke, clouds.. ..and in 
combination with other bodies ; deprived of 
caloric, it becomes ice, and restore to it caloric, 
«nd it becomes fluid again. 

i^. What is alcohol ? 



SOO AN EPITOME OF THE 

A. Brandy, and what are caUed spiritous 
liquors, are composed of alcohol, water, and a 
small portion of some essential oil, which makes 
the difference between the different kinds of 
ardent spirits. It is sometimes called spirits of 
wine ; and is composed of carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxigen. 

^ What 6{ oils ? 

A. They are of two classes ; fixed and vola- 
tile. The first are procured by expression 
from animal and vegetable substances ; the other 
by distillation. They appear to be composed 
of carbon and hydrogen. 

^ What are the alkalis ? 

A* Substances possessed of these properties r 
1. Incombustibility. 2. The quality of convert- 
ing vegetable blues into green. 3. A hot caustic 
taste 4. A high degree of solubility in water. 

^. Are there many alkalies ? 

A^ There are three : potash, soda, ammo- 
nia. The tw^o former are found, however, to 
have metallic bases ; and are called potasium 
and sodium. The two first have been called 
fixed alkalies ; the last volatile, because the 
violent heat was necessary to volatilize the 
former ; and the latter easily assumes the gaze- 
ous form. 

1^. Whence are they produced ? 

A. Potash is produced by burning wood to 
ashes ; repeatedly washing the ashes till it comes 
off free from taste : the water that tastes, is cal- 
led a lye, which is boiled until the potash is depo- 
sited in small, imperceptible crystals, like salt. 
The difference between it and soda is, that 
the latter is obtained from plants which grow in, 
or near the sea. The union of soda with fcit, 
makes hard soap ; with potash, soft soap. 



ABTS AND SCIENCES. 501 

^. How is ammonia produced ? 

A. By distillation from the horns and hoofs 
of animals, on which account it is sometimes 
called hartshorn^ being distilled from the horns 
of that class of animals ; it is called ammonia, 
from having been distilled from sal ammoniac ; 
distilled it rises in the form of a gas, but is ra- 
pidly absorbed by water, in which form it is sold 
in the shops. 

^. What are the acids ? 

A. Acids consist of a certain base united with 
oxygen, which is the cause of acidity. The 
bases of the sulphuric, nitric, phosphoric, and 
arsenic acids, are known ; and it is also known 
that hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, form the 
bases of the vegetable acids : and that the same 
substances combined with nitrogen, constitute 
the animal acids ; but the bases of the muriatic, 
boracic, and fluoric acids, are not known. Acids 
are either solid, liquid, or gazeous. They ex- 
cite a particular sensation on the palate called 
sourness ; and they change most of the blue 
vegetable colors to red* Most of them unite 
with water in all proportions. They combine 
with the alkalies, and are then called neutral 
salts ; which are distinguished by two forms of 
expression ; one designating the acid, the other, 
the alkaline base. The termination ate is used 
when the acid ending with ic^ is completely 
saturated with oxygen : thus salts combined 
with the nitric acid^ are called nitrates. Words 
ending with ite^ designate those weak acids, 
which are not fully saturated with oxygen ; and 
which, when alone, have the termination ous ; 
thus, nitrites or salts, compounded with nitrous 
acid. 

c c 



i9i J^N EPITOME OF rt&^ 

All metallic bodies combine Avith acids. The 
following are the acids at present known : 
Mineral «cirf5....Sulphureous, sulphuric, ni- 
trous, nitric, muriatic, oxygenated muriatic, 
hyper-oxygenated muriatic, carbonic, fluoric, 
boracic, mellitic* 
Metallic aci^^.,. .Arsenous, arsenic, tungstic, 

molybdic, chromic, columbic. 
Feg-etable acids.... Acetic^ malic, oxalic, citric, 
tartaric, benzoic, camphoric, gallic, succinic, 
suberic. 
Animal acirf^..,. Phosphorous, phosphoric, se- 

bacic, laccic, lactic, saccho-lactic, prussic. 
^. What of the compound bodies ? 
A. Those bodies of the first order, contain 
three classes : 1. Soap. 2. Neutral salts. 3. 
Hydrosulphurets. Oils taken into compound 
without decomposition of parts, are called soaps ; 
they are both alkaline and acid. The word salt, 
in chemistry, has a very comprehensive, but not 
strict sense ; as it embraces every substance 
that is sapid, easily melted, soluble in wat^r, 
and not incombustible ; and the term neutral 
salt, applies to any substance compounded of 
acids and alkalis, earths or metallic oxyds. In' 
these compounds, the earth, alkali, or oxyde, is 
called the base. Each order of salts is denomi- 
nated after the acid which enters into its com- 
position ; and every salt is distinguished by 
subjoining the name of its base. Thus all the 
salts into which sulphuric acid enters, are called 
sulphates... .^nd the salt formed by the combi- 
nation of sulphuric acid and potash, is called' 
sulphate of potash. 



ARTS ANU SCIENC-ES. 303 

AN EPITOME 

OF THE 

ARTS AJ^D SCIE;N'CES. 



CLASS XI..,.LESSO]V I. 

OF BOTANY. 

^ WHAT is understood by Botany ? 

A. That part of natural history, philosophy-, 
or physics, which treats of plants and vegetation. 
It is curious and useful, and a source of inex>r 
haustible delight. 

^. Is it not reduced to a particular system ? 

A. It has been in the ablest manner by Li- 
ndens, a Swedish physician, who has divided all 
plants into twenty-four classes, each of which 
is sub-divided into orders and genera ; and he 
has shewn that vegetables bear a strong analogy 
to animals; possessing sensation or life, and that 
they are of different sexes.. 

i^^. What, trees and flowers and herbs have 
life and be of different sexes ? 

A. Certainly, the goodness and wisdom of 
God are to be seen in his minutest works. 

^. How are plants known to be of one or ano- 
ther sex ? 

A'» By marks peculiar to each. 

^ Which are they ? 

A. Those which have a stamen or males, be- 
cause it secretes a fine juice which turns into a 
fine dust ; this nature has contrived shall be 
deposited on the tips or apices of the pistil of 



304> AN EPITOME OF TilE 

the female plant. The pistil consists of three 
parts, the germen, style, and stigma, each of 
which has its uses. 

^ What are the twenty-four classes which 
you say comprehend all plants and vegetables ? 

A. They are described by Greek words, ex- 
pressive of their nature, which those who attend 
to their learning soon know.... The first class, is 
Monandria^ which signifies in Greek one man ; 
so the classes go on ; 2, Diandria ; 3, Trian- 
(iriaj 4, Tetandria ; 5, Pentandria ; 6, Hexan- 
dria ; 7, Hepandria ; 8, Octandria ; 9, Eune- 
andria ; 10, Decandria ; 11, Dodecandria ; 12, 
Icosandria ; 13, Polyandria ^ 14, Dydinamia ; 
"iS^ Tetradydinamia ; 16, Diadelphia ; IT, 
Polyadelphia ; 18, Syngenesia ; 19, Gynandria ; 
20, Monoecia ; 21, Dioecia; 22, Polyganriia ; 
23, Cryptogamla. The best book for youth to 
learn more of Botanj/ is Dr. Barton's concise 
treatise. 

^ Is not Botany a part of the professional 
study of physicians ? 

A. A knowlege of Botany is very necessary 
10 physicians, because there are so many medi- 
cal plants, v/hich it is proper for them to know 
the nature of before they administer them.... 
The greatest Botanists have been physicians ; 
and lectures on Botany ahvays form a part of 
the course of medical studies. 

^. Can you name any particular plant that is 
distinguished in Botany and Medicine ? 

A. Several.. ..the Palma Christie from whence 
IS extracted Castor Oil, one of the most safe and 
valuable medicines, which may be raised in any 
quantity in all parts of the United States. There 
is the Chamomile also to be had in our meadows i 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. SOo 

in the West Indies they have the valuable vege- 
table called the Arrow Root ; and in South 
Annericathe Cinchona, or Jesuits bark. 

^. Do you recollect any others ? 

A. Yes, there are various plants useful for 
the comforts of life, and for commerce. Our 
country is celebrated for its tobacco ; and our 
new territory of Louisiana affords the sugar 
cane ; the vine is a native of the United States, 
and there are several species of it from which 
good wines have been made ; the coffee and the 
tea tree would thrive in our southern country. 

^ You do not notice any trees I 

A. We have trees ornamental and useful, equal 
in number and in size to any in the world ; our 
oaks and hickory of various kinds ; our maples 
and magnolias ; our pines and poplars are cele« 
brated. 

^. What kind of tree is the oak ? 

A. It is one of the largest and most liseful of 
all vegetables ; it is the strongest and most dura- 
ble of all timber ; and will continue firm and 
sound, either in air or water, longer than any 
other wood, excepting the Teak of the East In- 
dies. Hence the great value it is of to ship- 
builders, carpenters, and other architects. It is 
produced from the acorn, a small fruit which it 
bears, and it is said by naturalists to grow three 
hundred years. 

^. What is a vine ? 

A. The vine is a plant or shrub of the parasite 
kind, supporting itself by creeping or climbing - 
up any thing that stands near it. It is famous 
for its fruir, culled gjapes, v^hich it produces in 
Bunches, arid from the juice of which wine is 
made ^ dangerous when mer* drink it to excess j 
c c 2 



306 ^ A'S EPITOME OF THE 

but temperately used, its virtues cheer the heart, 
and enliven the imagination. 

The best situation for a vineyard, is a dry 
soil, on the side of a hill. There are various 
, kinds of wine, which are generally denominated 
from the places where the vines grow. Thus, 
Port comes from Portugal ; Madeira, from the 
island of Madeira; and Burgundy and Cham- 
paigne, are the produce of France ; the grape 
best adapted to the United States, is that from 
v/hich the Constantine wine is made, it stands 
the severest seasons of our climate. 

^. What have you to say of the coiFce tree ? 

j4. It is the tree that bears the coffee berries. 
It grows very plentifully in Arabia, and is also 
cultivated in Turkey, some parts of the Levant, 
and in the West Indies. The size of the ber- 
ries is sometliing bigger than our largest peas ; 
the flower is like the white jessamin flower, and 
the leaf like that of the bay. 

The berries are of a pale color, and imported 
to us as they are gathered from the tree ; but 
before they can be used to make the liquor which 
we call cofi^ee, they are roasted in iron boxes, 
till they become a deep broY/n color, and then 
ground in a mill, to powder. 

^ What have you to observe concerning the 
tea tree ? 

A. The tea tree grows in China, Japan, Siam, 
and other parts of the east. It delights in val- 
leys, and a stony soil. That which is imported 
to us, and of which we make tea, is only the 
leaves. They are gathered by the natives, in. 
March and April, held over the steam of boiling- 
water to moisten them, and then laid on copper 
plates, and dried before the fire, which curh 
them in the manner we 5"ec. 



jiKTS ANB SCIENCES. 307 

Its seed is usually sown in places exposed to 
the south ; and the tree bears three years after 
sowing. The root is something like that of the 
peach tree ; the leaves are about an inch and an 
half long, narrow at the point, and jagged all 
round. Its flower resembles the wild rose;, 
which, when blown, is succeeded by a pod, not 
exceeding the size of a hazle nut, containing 
two or three seeds, from whence the plant is 
propagated. The tree is said to be of various 
heights ; even from one foot to fifty* 



308 AN EPITOME or THE 

CLASS XI..,.LESSON IL 

OF BOTANY. 

^. WHAT are the chief properties of the to- 
bacco plant ? 

A. The tobacco plant is cultivated in the 
southern states ; the greatest part of which is 
exported to Europe. It likewise grows in other 
parts of the world, in most of the islands of the 
West Indies, and particularly in Tobago, whence 
it had its name. It is cultivated in the Ukraine, 
or south of Tartary. In Hindustan it is univer- 
sally cultivated ; the tobacco of the district of 
Bilsah, bears double the price of all other tobac- 
co. It is propagated from seed, which is sown 
on pretty good ground, and, for some time, 
watered every day. In very hot weather^ it is 
protected from the heat of the sun by branches 
of trees, or mats, thrown over it, and supported 
by upright sticks. 

When it has risen to a certain height, they 
prepare a piece of ground for its reception, and 
transplant it like lettuce ; after which it is care- 
fully weeded. The low^r leaves are broken off, 
that they may not hang upon the ground and 
rot ; and when it begins to shew its flower, the 
heads also are cut off, that only twelve or fifteen 
of the principal leaves, receiving all the nourish- 
ment, may grow larger and of a thicker sub- 
stance. 

When ripe, the stalks are cut down, and hung 
up two by two under some shed or shelter from 
the sun and rain, and dried by the air for fifteen 
or twenty days. When the leaves are satlicient- 
ly dried, they are puUed from the stalks, made 



AKTS AslSV SCIENCES. 309 

up into bundles, which, being wetted with water, 
are twisted into rolls, and in this manner 
exported to Europe ; where the tobacconist 
with an engine cuts it for smoking, or grinds it 
for snufF, according to his occasion. 

This plant was first carried to England by- 
sir Walter Raleigh, in the reign of queen Eliza- 
beth, which gave occasion, it is said, to the fol- 
lowing curious incident. One morning while 
he was smoking a pipe of tobacco in his closet, 
(a thing unknown to every body in England but 
himself) his servant entered with his breakfast, 
(consisting of a tankard of ale and a toast ; for 
the use of tea was then unknown) and observing 
sir Walter surrounded by a cloud of smoke, 
imagined that by some unlucky accident he had 
caught fire ; upon which he threw the tankard 
of ale in his face, and ran out of the room, ex- 
claiming that his master was all in flames. 

^. Is not the sugar-cane a very curious 
plant ? 

A. It certainly is : it is produced in many 
parts of the West Indies, particularly the Carib- 
bee islands, as Barbadoes, Jamaica, St. Chris^ 
topher's, &c. It usually grows five to eight 
feet high, and is about an inch in diameter.... 
The stem, or stock, is divided by knots several 
inches apart. At the top it puts forth a number 
of long green leaves, from the middle of which 
arises the flower and the seed. When ripe, 
which is commonly in about ten montiis, it is 
found quite full of a white juicy pith, v/hich is 
broken into a pulp from which is expressed the 
liquor whereof sugar is made. 

The process of making sugar is as follows : 
after the cane is cut, they are carried in bundles 



A2r EPITOM£ OF THE 

to the mills, which consist of three wooden 
rollers, covMxd with steel plates, and is wrought 
by water, or wind, or cattle, or slaves. The 
liquor, when the canes are broken and pressed 
between the rollers, runs through a little canal 
into the sugarhouse, and is conveyed into a 
copper heated by a slow fire, just to make it 
simmer, where it receives its first separation. 
With the liquor is here mixed a quantity of 
^hes and quick lime ; the effect of which mix- 
ture, assisted by the action of fire, is, that the 
unctuous parts are separated from the rest, and 
raised to the top in form of a thick scum, which 
is constantly taken off with a skimmer. 

This done, it is further purified in a second, 
third, fourth, and fifth boiler, in which last it is 
brought to the consistence of a syrup. Then in 
a sixth boiler the syrup receives its full coction ; 
and here all the impurities left by the former 
lees are ti^ken away by a new lee, and a water of 
lime and allum is cast into it. 

In this last copper there is scarce found one- 
third of what was in the first, the rest being 
wasted in scum. By thus passing a number of 
coppers, the sugar juice is purified, thickened^ 
and rendered fit to be converted into any kind of 
sugar. 

^. Are there not many useful or curious 
trees or plants besides those you have men- 
tioned ? 

A. Most certainly ; the cabbage-tree answers 
most of the purposes of table greens ; the bread- 
fruit-tree ; the Cocoa or Palmyra Palm tree 
furnishes food, timber, the materials for fire» 
oil, paper, and corclajre. 



Class xl.-.lesson hi. 

OF ANIMATED NATURE. 

^ HOW do you atraitige animated beings ? 

A. Into classes, which are determined either 
by the forms of the animals oi* other particulars, 
as meii are erect and two legged, w^ith hands and 
organs of speech ; beasts are font legged and 
hairy ; birds are feathered and winged ; fishes 
are finned and scaly, without legs: : reptiles are, 
like fishes, Without legs j in^ect^ are many legged 
and winged. 

^ Then there are sixtlasses, mankind,beasts, 
birds, fishes, reptiles aild insects... .do these com- 
prehend the whole animal creatidti ? 

A, No. ...there are animals Ij'hich partake of 
some particular characteristics* of two or more 
of these classes ; for example, the monkey speties 
have hands ,and in m^riy other respects approach- 
es to the resemblance of the human form ; bats 
partake of the qualities and features of birds and 
beasts ; the hippopotamus and seal partake of thc^ 
nature of beasts and fishes ; and the alligator and 
crocodile of the qualities of fishes, reptiles and 
ijuadrupedsi There are other deviations from 
the ordinary classes of animated beings, which 
belong to a more advanced period of study. 

^. Is this arrangement conformable to the 
systems of naturalists ? 

A. It i^ not strictly conformable to any that I 
arti acquainted with ; but it appears^ to be con- 
fortiiable with reason and good sense. 

^. I)b not naturalists describe this branth of 
knowlege under a particular name ? 



512 Alf EPITOME OF THE 

A. Yes... .they call it Zoology, which means 
a discourse on animals or living creatures ; the 
author of which is Charles Van Lin, commonly 
called Linnaeus ; his system of Zoology is di- 
vided into six classes....!, Mammalia ; 2, Aves ; 
^^ Amphibia; 4, Pisces; S^Insecta; 6^ Vermes. 

§>^ As the system of Linnaeus is the most 
generally adopted, give mc some particulars of 
this classification. 

A. The first class. Mammalia^ which is deriv- 
ed from the Latin w^ord which signifies the paps 
or breasts ; comprehends all animals that suckle 
...♦and it contains seven orders. 

1. Primates^ animals that have two canine 
and four cutting teeth ; of this order there are 
only three genera....!, Man j 2, Monkeys ; 3, 
Bats. 

2. BrutOy that have no cutting teeth, as the 
elephant. 

3. Fera^ that have ten cutting teeth, as the 
lion. 

4. GlireSy two cutting teeth and two canine 
teeth, as the hare. 

5. PecudeSy that have no cutting teeth in the 
upper jaw, as sheep. 

5. Bellua^ animals that have hoofs, and cutting 
teeth in both jaws ; such as the horse. 

7. Cccte, or whales. 

^. Then it appears that the whale is ranked 
among the animals that are suckled when young? 

A. Yes....and some other marine animals. 

^. I wish to have a more particular discri- 
mination made between the classes of animals, 
so that their different characters may be more 
clearly understood. 

A. Man is distinguished by the reasoning 
faculty....Beasts, by living on land, and being 



4MTS A»rD SCIENCES. SIS 

either subject to, or at war with man.. ..Birds 
flying in the air, or living domesticated with 
man....Fishes by living in the water.... Reptiles 
living either by land or water.. ..and insects liv- 
ing in the air, water, or on the earth. 

^. What is the principal distinction among 
beasts ? 

A. The first is that of the whole footed, such 
as the horse, ass, mule, zebra. 

2. The cloven footed, as the ox kind, the 
bison, buffaloe, sheep, goat, antelope, the camel, 
dromedary, the goraffe, camelopardel, and 
musk. 

3. Those that never shed their horns, among 
which are, all of the ox kind, and antelope, 
sheep, and goats. 

4. Those that shed their horns or teeth, as 
the deer kind, buck, elk, rein-deer, and elephant. 

5. The tusked animals, as the elephant, rhi- 
norceros, tapir, hippopotamus, and we make a 
separate class of the wild boar, hog, peccary, and 
babyroussa. 

6. Animals of the dog kind, which have claws 
but not hoofs, as the great variety of dogs, the 
wolf, fox, hyena, &c. 

7. Those of the cat kind, as the domestic cat, 
tyger, panther, lion, ounce, lynx, leopard, &c. 

8. The short legged quadrupeds, as the wea- 
sel, ermine, ferret, martin, sable, rabbit, &c. 

9. Those of the furred kind, as the bear, bea- 
ver, badger, racoon, &c. 

^ I wish you to describe a few of the most 
worthy of notice ? 

A. Animals of the ox kind, as the bull and 
cow, are the first in rank as to beauty, service, 
and size* There is no part of the aaimal witlb. 

D D 



3di xs :epitomjb or ms 

out utility ; in many countries they perfgrm all 
the work of carriage and draught ; while living, 
the milk, cream, whey ; when dead, the blood, 
fat, marrow, hide, hoof, horns, urine, liver, gall, 
spleen, bones, have their several and certain 
uses and value ; vellum and gold beater's skin, 
is obtained from those animals ; their hair is 
li&eful to builders, and their horns, for various 
species of manufacture. 

The cow, which furnishes the materials for the 
d.airy, deserves most regard ; it is described sci- 
entifically cloven footed ; horned j horns bend- 
ing laterally ; eight cutting teeth in the lower 
jaw, none in the upper ; it is a hardy animal, 
little regardful of the quality of food if supplied 
abundantly, but delights in rich pasture. It is 
an ancient inmate of every climate, domestic 
and tame in civilized countries ; savage and 
wild in wild countries, but useful in all. In 
Europe, and where domesticated in the United 
States, the species is either red, black, or a 
mixture of red and white, or white and black ; in 
Asia the tame species is wholly white, and have a 
large fleshy substance above the fore shoulders, 
called a hump; the wild species are enormously 
large, and of a brown or dun color^i 

The horse by his speed surpasses tlie ox, but 
next in usefulness is the sheep, which is describ- 
ed with horns spiral or curved outwaad or hack- 
ward;, in ttie low^r jaw eight cutting teeth, the 
upper none. Their great value arises from thdr 
fleeces, of which the various kinds of sheep pro- 
duce wool of different qualities. The fine fleeced- 
sheep were peculiar to Europe, those of Spain 
the most admired ; but more pains are bestow-^ 
ed on them in England* The breed of this fine 



U4 




THE OX. 




THE SHEEP. 



315 




THE CAMEL. 




THE BKOMBDARr, 



I 



ARTS AND SCIENCIEI^. Sib 

fleeced sheep encreases daily in the United 
States, and the markets within a few years yield 
mutton equal to any in the world. 

The kinds of sheep are very numerous... .the 
value of those of the best fleeces may be judged 
by what Mr. A. Young says of those of Eng- 
land, in his work called a " Six Months Tour?^ 
There are manufactured in Great Britain and 
Ireland 466,532 packs of wool; and exported 
immanufactured 285,000 packs ; which at £^7* 
sterling, (or thirty-five dollars) amounts to 
;^5,260,r24 (or 26^303,620 dollars)....the value 
of the manufactured wool is about ;^ 12,434,855, 
(or dollars 62,174,275) annually circulated 
among industrious artisans. The artisans em- 
ployed 1,557,834 people out of the whole labor- 
ing classes. 

^. Give me some account of the useful arii- 
mals of other countries, the camel for example I 

A. There are several of the camel kind, but 
two are pre-eminently distinguished. The Ara* 
bian camel and the dromedary. The former 
has two elevations or fleshy substances is « 
native of the ancient Bactria, (^modern Toorkis- 
tan :) the latter is a native of Arabia. 

The Arabian camel possesses the various quali- 
ties of the horse, the cow, and the sheep. It is 
figuratively called the ship of the desart, because 
it travels over the sands of Asia and Africa for 
several days without food or drink ; with the 
camel the Arab will travel fifty leagues of a day, 
where there is neither verdure to refresh nor 
shade to shelter, where nothing is visible to the 
eye but sand, void, naked, and solitarj^ With 
this animal trade is carried on between Asia^ 
Atrlcaj and the Mediterranean. ...and even to 



346 AS EPITOME OF THE 

China, A camel will carry from 100 to 1200 
pounds weight. 

The dromedary differs only in the single tuft 
or rump from the camel... *their nature and uses 
are the same. 

The Layna of South America is of this spe- 
cies, and though npt much larger than a full 
gro vn deer, is employed as a beast of burden on 
the Andes. 

^. You have mentioned the deer, let me have 
|5ome account thereof ? 

A* I select the fallow deer, as one of the most 
heautifui of the kind. It differs from the stag- 
only in size and the shape of the horns, which 
are smaller, and are shed annually. They are 
easily tamed. The varieties of the deer kind 
are numerous ; but the most worthy of note is 
the Elk, the largest of the kind, which abounds 
on our continent, and is frequent in Canada, 
The rein dter, moose, antelope, ibex, tibet, are 
all of this species.... 

^. Give me some account of the white bear 
and panther ? 

A. The white or polar bear, differs from the 
brown bear of our woods, as well in its length 
of head and neck, as by growing to double the 
size ; some of them are thirteen feet long.... 
Their limbs are of great size and strength ; 
their hair long, harsh, and disagreeable to the 
touch, and of a yellowish white color ; their 
ears short and rounded, teeth large ; they 
inhabit the coldest parts of the globe, having 
been found in 80 -deg. north latitude. They 
are often seen on those masses of ice which se- 
parate from the continents of the north, and are 
drifted southwardly, but are seldom met oti 



oxo 




THE DEER. 




THE WHITE BEAR. 



U7 




THE ROYAL TTGER, 




THE CONDOUS, 



l:md south of the island df Newfoundlanci ; but 
are abundant on the shores of Hudson's Bay, 
Greenland, Sphzbergen, &g. 

The panther differs from the tj^gef, c)nly irt 
its being something smaller and the skin spotted; 
whereas the tyger is streaked. Its cfuelty and 
hostility to man is the same; and its aversiou 
extends to the monkey, in search of which it 
will climb trees. The panther is found princi- 
pally in Africa, the tyger in Asia; but both are 
found in both quarters of the wotid. They are 
all of the cat kind. The American tyger, which 
is called Couzar, is said to partake of the ap* 
pearance of the lion also, and to prey upon 
deer and other animals. 

^. This much will serve for an introductiott 
to this branch ; the second branch of zoology, is 
aves or birds ; has it not a classical name ? 

A, Yes: it is called ornithology, and is di- '^ 
vided into six classes. 

1. Accipitres or the rapacious kind, which Yivt 
upon flesh, prey upon other animals; and are 
known by their strong hooked beaks, muscular 
legs, strong talons, strength, aihid ferocity. 

S* Picas^ or ihtpie kind ; which feed miscella- 
neously, and their females being fed by the males 
Inbreeding time; they have convex and com- 
pressed beaks. 

3. AiisereSj or the poultry kind j with fat 
muscular bodies, pure white flesh : unlike other 
birds, promiscuous in the choice of their mates ; 
their beaks are various, depressed, dtntated, or 
serrated* 

4. Scolopaces^ or the sparrow kind ; mostly 
vocal and beautiful plumage ; food, seeds and in- 
jects ; while rearing remarkably fond and faith- 
ful ; their beaks are subcylindric and some obtuse » 

p d2 



318 AX EPITOME OF THE 

5. Gallince^ or the duck kind ; distinguished by 
their beaks, which serve them as food strainers; 
by webbed feet, which enables them to swim and 
remain on the water, their beaks flat, conical, 
and some crooked. 

C. Passeres^ or crane kind ; long penetrating 
bills, w:hich enable them to search in the waters 
for food ; long limbs. 

i^. Are there not several birds that do not 
belong to either of these classes ? 

A. Yes... .the Ostrich, Cassowary, Condour^ 
Dodo, and some others of extraordinarj^ size^ 
which disables them from flying. 

In the description of birds, the beaks is the 
first object by which the character is determined 
....the feet^ wings, and tail, successively follow. 
^ What kind of bird is the Condour ? 
A. No bird can compare %vith it for size, ra- 
pacity, strength, or swiftness ; in force and viva- 
city it surj-jasses the eagle, its bald head and neck 
i\ave caused it to be classed with the vulture. It 
5 very rare in all parts of the world, but is 
.ometimes seen in our own country. One of 
these birds, shot on the coast of Chili, South 
America, was measured, and the wings from one 
extremity to the other were 16 fcet» One of its 
quills wa5 an iuch and an half in circumference. 
Naturalists suppose this bird to he the Rock ol 
which marvellous tales are told in the Arabi^i.r 
fables. 



ARTS AND SCIENCES. ^19 



CLASS XI.-.LESSON TV. 

OF ANIMAT1:D NxATURE. 

^. GIVE me some account of the domestic 
cock ? 

A. This bird In its native forests is not so 
beautiful as in its reclaimed state. The species 
yet inhabits the woods of Asia, in natural wild- 
Rcss, and often deceive the foreign traveller 
at nlghl by his crowing, into a belief that civili- 
zation is near at hand. The largest birds of 
this kind are brought from Ava and Pegu ; the 
smallest from Bantam and other islands in the 
Indian archipelago. A barbarous passion pre- 
vails in some parts of the world, in provoking 
the cock to combat with one of his species ; re- 
finement in cruelty has enlisted art in this inhu- 
man sport, and affixes steel spurs to the heels of 
the animals, whose females exhibit the most af- 
fectionate examples of maternal assiduity and 
love, in her care of her eggs and the clutch of 
her chickens. 

^. Give me some account of birds of the 
crane kind ? 

A. The heron is the most numerous in its 
kinds; there are no less than 47 sorts of heron, 
varying in size, plumage, anci figure, but all of 
the same manners, their general character cow- 
ardice, rapacity, indolence, and insatiable hun-' 
ger. The heron lives chiefly in pools and 
marshes; builds in the tops of trees and cliifs..,. 
its food frogs, fish, and the like. 

^. What of the flamingo ? 

A. It is an American bird ; seen in great 
flocks in Canada and to the northward of our 



S20 AN ISMTOME OF TfiB 

lakes. They live by the shores of seas and 
deep M'aters^ and at the mouths of rivers ; and 
their shape is fitted for their mode of life, the 
body is as largess that of a goose j but standing 
on the shore from the length of its legs appears 
very stately, as the shape of its body is delicately 
molded ; the plumage of the body snow white ; 
the wings a bright scarlet, and the long feathers 
of the wings a jet black ; the beak isblue. The 
legs and thighs usually about two feet eight 
inches long, and not thicker than the human 
finger; the neck nearly three feet j the toes are 
webbed like those of a duck. 

^. Give me same account of the amphibia^ or 
third class? 

A. There are comprehended in this class (the 
word implies two xoays of life J all animals that- 
live upon land and in the water j they are divid- 
-ed into tv/o classes. 

1. Such as live principally upon land, and go 
occasionally into the water; as the hippopota- 
mus, beaver, seal, otter, tortoise, &c. &c. 

2. Such as live principally in the water, but 
go occasionally to land,as eels, water-snakes, &c. 

^. What is the scientific term under which 
the study of the fourth class pisces\ or fishes, is 
designated? 

A. hthyologif^ which is distributed into four 
orders, which are distinguished by the coHtfor-^ 
mation or want of fins. 

1. Apodees^ of which the eel is an cxaniple. 

2» yugtdares..*.\ht cod* 

5. Thoracia....tht perch. 

4. Abdomznales..,.tne salmon. 

From this arrangement the whale and dolphin 
is excluded^ they being classed uader Mamm^li4ii 



322 




PHALENA BUCEPHALA. 




;ut:\dow tujtterfly. 




AMERICAN EMPEROR. 




THE STAG BEETLE AND GOLDEN BEETLE. 



AKTS AXD SCIENCBS^ €t2i 

Fennant^ an English naturalist, has given 
another arrangement into three classes, each of 
which comprehends several genera. They are: 
1. Cetaceous^ 2i^t\iQ\yh^^.; 2. Cartilaginous^ ^^ 
the picked dog fish ; 3. Bony or spinous^ as the 
cod. 

^ How is the fifth class of Zoology deno- 
minated ? 

A. The natural history of insects is denomi- 
nated Entimology^ and comprehends many 
thousands, but is generally understood to be con- 
fined to all that class of animals which have six 
or more feet. 

^. The sixth class cannot be so numerous as 
the last ? 

A. Noj but it is subdivided into six simple 
orders. 1. Intestina^ as the earth-worm; 2. 
MoluscUy or the naked snail ; 3. Testacea^ as the 
shelled snail ; 4. Infusiona^ as the water worm , 
5. Zoophyte or polype. 

^. I wish to obtain some account of a fev.^ of 
the most curious subjects of Entimology ? 

A* Insects are in their nature most curious* 
from the mutability in their existence, and the 
wonderful change which they undergo. What 
a scene of wonders does not the butterfly dis- 
play ! Its eyes of net work, its wings besprinkled 
with farinacious dust, of which every grain is a 
tile laid over a fine net of gauze ; and the infinite 
variety of form, color, richness, beauty of its 
embellishment. This beautiful tribe is divided 
into the nocturnal and diurnal, or the butterflies 
and moths. Of the latter is the silk worm^ of 
which there are many varieties ; there are three 
silk worms natives of Pennsylvania, and from 
spme af which silk of a beautiful fabric was 



o'Z'Z A*r EPITOME OF THE 

procured thirty years ago under the cart of I 
Franklin. 

Its history is this.. ..when the worm leaves th 
egg, it feeds upon mulberry leaves ; it is at i\i>i 
small and black ; in a few days it assumes a nei,^ 
habit ; while tinged with the color of its food: 
and before it goes into the chrysalis state as- 
sumes two other dresses. When this state coni, 
mences, the insect proceeds to spin its silk, 
which becomes its tomb; and in a short time 
becomes the cradle of a new insect, which 
bursting its tomb, takes wing. 

The two beautiful insects which appear on the 
page opposite are varieties much admired. 

The first is called the Phalena Bucephala^ or 
buff tip moth, a night fly ; its two horns are 
feathered; first wings^ g^^y; with two double 
tranverse brown waves, and a yellowish brown 
spot on the extreme angle, the second wings 
light yellow, length scarce an inch ; the caterpiU 
lair is hairy, yellow with black spots, feeds on 
oaks, &c. The delicate down which clothes the 
upper w ings is its chief beamty. It is hatched 
from the egg in August, and June uf the fol- 
lowing year flies, and becomes the prey of the 
feathered tribe. 

The second on the page Is the vieadoxv butter' 
fiy; when cauliflowers begin to heart, the perfect 
insect of the caterpillar deposits her eggs upon 
the leaves. The heat of the sun soon gives them 
life, brings foith the caterpillar, which immedi- 
ately begins to consume the bed upon which it 
was Vivified. The worm begins its transforma- 
tion about the first of August, and flies a beau- 
tiful buttr.rfly, about the middle of the sauK- 



AKTS AND SCIENCES. 323 

'^'rhe "beautiful butterfiv, called American em- 
^eror^ is in its first stage of existence, a cater- 
pillar, which feeds voraciovlsly on nettles.... 
''^fter preparation for transformation, it remains 
•jout three months in the torpid state, and then 
expands its beauteous wings, surpassing in their 
Drilliancy and beauty, the plumage of the peacock 
,.cthe cut represents the caterpillar on the branch, 
the chrysalis, or torpid caterpillar below, and 
vhe butterfly above, on the right. 

^ Give me some account of one or two of 
the beetle tribe ? 

A Of these insects generally, it is said that 
like shell fish, the bones are external, the mus- 
cles internal ; and that bulk for bulk, they are a 
thousand times stronger than man. The drawing 
annexed, is that of the stag or golden beetle ^ as 
large as life. It is known by its horns project- 
ing like those of a stag from its head. The 
whole insect is of a deep brown, and is found 
among oaks. Their m^axilla or jaws are fur- 
nished with teeth, which have the appearance of 
coraJi. They live on the oozings of the oak. 

The snvailer insect is also called the golden 
beetle^ it is found upon flowers, particularly the 
rose. The body is of a burnished golden green, 
tinged with red, so as to, resemble as it moves 
burnished copper. It rivals the emerald in 
beauty of color. 

^. There are two other insects, which I wish 
some account of, and then we shall close, the 
Tarantula and Ichneumon fly ? 

A. The tarantula bears some resemblance to 
the house spider. For many years it was a re- 
ceived opinion that the bite of this insect produc- 
ed a m^ady which music only could cure.— 



32* AN EPITOME, &e. 

This is now considered as a vulgar error. There 
are many varieties of this insect....those of India 
are much longer limbed than those of Europe 
and America. 

The Ichneumon fly, derives its name from a 
comparison of its real services with the suppos* 
ed but unreal services of the Ichneumon rat of 
the Nile, which was fabled to destroy the croco- 
dile. This fly destroys caterpillars, p^ant lice, 
and other insects that infest and injure plants. — 
They also attack spiders. Their war against 
other insects, has induced naturalists to compare 
them to cannibals; but without justice, as it 
appears they in truth perform only the same 
office as that of the domestic dog. 



These several classes are to be understood, as 
the title of the work implies, a simple Epitome 
of each ; but they are each calculated to open 
the mind, by giving correct ideas at the begin- 
ning, a matter the most worthy of regard ; a 
young person acquainted with the contents of 
this elementary work, will have nothing to 
unlearn. 

THE END. 




TARANTULA. 



,;>*'*^ 




ICHNEUMON FLY. 




3i^77-5 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



028 014 153 7 



:«P 



